The pig-nosed turtle is a large, freshwater chelonian, threatened principally by over-exploitation at colonial nesting grounds, and also by physical disturbance and erosion of nest sites from increased river traffic and changes in water level and flow patterns caused by damming and other industrial projects. The species is poorly known, but is recorded from several rivers in southern New Guinea and also from Northern Territory, Australia. Initial research on this species indicates the need for the following measures in Papua New Guinea, focusing especially on the Fly River catchment:
Comparative studies on the impact of different levels of exploitation of this species are needed to serve as a foundation for future monitoring of the turtle populations, and to enable future advice to be given to local communities to help them protect Carettochelys and its eggs.
An assessment of the current intensity of exploitation is required to provide a basis for monitoring, and if necessary, controlling future trends in exploitation with changes in human populations and practices.
An evaluation of the principal habitat requirements of Carettochelys is required in order to evaluate and respond to the potential impact of proposed, or potential, projects in river catchments, such as hydroelectricity schemes, mangrove clearing/woodchipping, etc.
Population data are required to determine whether a management programme for ensuring a sustainable harvest of Carettochelys is necessary and attainable.
The population studies must be associated with research into the possibility of integrating a sustainable harvest system into local economies. This will almost certainly need to be backed up with a public awareness and education campaign. The programme will also include provision for training local wildlife staff and maintaining their operations.
In view of the importance of Carettochelys as a food source for local people and the decentralized nature of the wildlife management authority in Papua New Guinea, conservation measures will need to be introduced with sensitivity. Specific action to be recommended may include a nest site protection scheme allied to a closed season for hunting and egg collecting.
Figure 1. Distribution of the pig-nosed turtle (Carettochelys insculpta). (From Iverson 1986.)
Other species occurring in the Fly River system that could potentially benefit from conservation input for Carettochelys:
Pelochelys bibroni
Chelodina novaeguineae
Elseya novaguineae
Emydura subglobosa
Populations in northern Australia need investigation to determine status and exact distribution. This will also provide a basis for comparison with work in Papua New Guinea. Some funds have already been secured for initial surveys in Kakadu National Park and the Daly River region of Northern Territory. Further work is necessary to identify areas of critical habitat for future management and protection.
Contact persons: Arthur Georges, Linda Heaphy, Mark Rose
Budget: U.S. $50,000
This is a very poorly studied species known only from the Fitzroy River system, eastern Queensland, Australia. The majority of recent visitors have failed to find this turtle, the habitat of which is only accessible during clear-water episodes (dry season).
Contact person: Robert Parmenter
Budget: U.S. $3,000
The Western swamp turtle is an unusual species confined to two nature reserves on the outskirts of Perth, Western Australia, where it inhabits ephemeral winter-wet swamps, and spends 6-8 months a year in aestivation. The total population is less than 100 animals and declining; one of the two populations might no longer exist, and there may be as few as one or two females remaining in the wild. The only valid hope lies in captive breeding, but this has proved extremely difficult to date; it is believed that the turtles need stressed conditions (e.g. long drought) in order to trigger breeding.
Continued monitoring is required to understand more fully the species' specialized and critical breeding cycle, and international expertise is needed to help increase the success rate of the current captive breeding programme at the Conservation and Land Management Centre in Perth.
Three main aims have to be achieved:
Inducing the females to produce eggs
Increasing the fertility rate of the eggs (which was less than 50% in 1980, the last season with reproduction in captivity)
Improving the hatching rate, survival, and growth of juveniles.
Since the captive breeding and rearing programme will need to run for several years before animals can be released into the wild, it is essential that the remaining natural sites are fully protected and managed to maintain suitable habitat.
Contact person: Andrew Burbidge
Captive Breeding advisors: Gerald Kuchling and Walter Sachsse (through T&FWT Specialist Group Captive Breeding Sub-committee).
Budget: U.S. $10,000
Geochelone sulcata is a widespread but thinly-scattered and little-known species occurring across the Sahel and sub-Saharan region from Senegal to Ethiopia. It is the largest mainland tortoise in Africa, and an important component of the fauna of this semi-desertic region, but its current status is uncertain and it may no longer inhabit several of its former localities.
A small-scale captive breeding programme has been established at the Nazinga Ranch, Burkina Faso, as part of a wider programme to evaluate the potential meat production per unit area that can be obtained on a sustainable basis. The ultimate aim of the project, through the cooperation of local people, government authorities, and specialists is to develop a unified approach to conservation and rural development in West Africa.
Work on Geochelone sulcata should be integrated into this programme and extended to other parts of the species range as the project develops. Initial status surveys should concentrate in West Africa in Senegal, Mali and Burkina Faso, and further east in Sudan. The potential for a pilot project for the reintroduction of tortoises in Sudan, utilizing stock from the very successful captive breeding colony at the Al-Ain Zoo, Abu Dhabi, should be investigated.
Contact persons: Clark Lungren (Burkina Faso), Jean-Pierre Pouvreau (Senegal), Mohd. Reza Khan (Abu Dhabi), and David Stubbs (U.K.)
Budget: U.S. $40,000 for initial establishment phases.
This unusual tortoise of rocky hills and outcrops in arid thorn bush and savanna is scattered in isolated localities in southern Kenya (Kitui District) and northern Tanzania (Dodoma District). Few population data exist, but there was formerly heavy pet trade exploitation in Kenya, and there has recently been renewed heavy export from Tanzania. Many sites are vulnerable because of their proximity to dense human populations and trade centres.
Recent reports from Roger Wood in Kenya indicate that stable, undisturbed populations still remain. Detailed status surveys need to be conducted between May and August in main areas where populations are known and within existing wildlife reserves. This study is part of the priority programme of Operation Tortoise, the global review of tortoise status. Field staff will be supplemented by visiting specialists. Immediate goals are to locate as many existing populations as possible and determine their viability. Further, long-term conservation effort will be directed towards the purchase and management of small reserve areas; potential sites also have high botanical importance. Results of numerous captive breeding exercises need to be harnessed, and the Tanzanian authorities should be encouraged to implement CITES obligations for this species (i.e., to control and monitor trade levels through export licenses).
Contact persons: Don Moll, Tom Langton, and J. Hebrard
Budget: U.S. $30,000
Figure 2. Top: Distribution of the African spurred tortoise (Geochelone sulcata) (From Iverson 1986.)
Bottom: Distribution of the Madagascan big-headed side-necked turtle (Erymnochelys madagascariensis) (From Iverson 1986.)
This is a little-known species of limited distribution in Natal, Swaziland and southern Mozambique. It is in need of a field survey to assess its conservation requirements.
Contact persons: Dr. O. Bourquin and Don Broadley
Budget: U.S. $3,000
Recently rediscovered, nothing is known about the status and distribution of this species other than that it occurs near Aus in southern Namibia.
Contact person: William Branch
Budget: U.S. $5,000
This is a species endemic to the Seychelles Islands, in need of confirmation of its continued existence. If found, the population will require a full status survey, including investigation of competition with the more common East African yellow-bellied mud turtle (Pelusios castanoides), and verification of taxonomic uniqueness. Field work to concentrate on Mahé.
Contact person: Roger Bour
Budget: U.S. $15,000
This large endemic river turtle is reportedly declining over much of its range in western Madagascar, mainly because of over-exploitation and habitat degradation. This is a species of great zoogeographic interest because of its close affinity to the Podocnemis spp. of South America.
Adult male and female Boulenger's Cape tortoise (Homopus boulengeri), one of the world's smallest tortoises, whose range is confined to certain rocky habitats in the Great Karoo of South Africa. It does not survive long in captivity. (Photo by P.C.H. Pritchard.)
A detailed status survey, including of its population biology, is required with a plan to introduce sustainable yield management. Initial fieldwork should concentrate on populations in permanent lakes along the Tsiribihina River, where the species is reportedly abundant, and at Lake Kinkony, where it is heavily exploited. Sites should be identified for potential reserves and for closed season nesting-ground protection. CITES Appendix II status should be observed and enforced, but export is probably not the main problem.
Contact person: Charles Blanc
Budget: U.S. $25,000
This small tortoise is endemic to Madagascar. Its total range is supposedly limited to the Andranomena and Amborompotsy Forests near Morondava on the central-west coast, but suitable habitat is possibly available in other forested areas nearby. Recent field studies indicate that much of the habitat in the species' range is in good condition and some is nominally protected, but there may be threats from habitat destruction and modification (timber logging), leading to an increased number of egg predators. There has been no known success with captive breeding, although captive groups have been held in the San Diego and Knoxville Zoos (U.S.A.).
A full status survey and population study is urgently required to provide an impetus for protection of the remaining natural habitat and construction of an on-site captive rearing and protected breeding facility. One possibility could be to expand the Ampijora captive breeding facility for Geochelone yniphora to accommodate other Madagascan tortoise species, provided that extra funds become available.
Contact person: Gerald Kuchling
Budget: U.S. $25,000
This species is severely depleted along many river basins, particularly in Louisiana and parts of Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. It is heavily exploited for food and for its alleged damage to fisheries in certain areas.
It should be included on the federal protected list as "Threatened" and pressure should be exerted on Louisiana authorities to enforce protection. A moratorium on all hunting of this species in that state is required while detailed population assessments are carried out. This will also need careful approaches to market traders to develop support for conservation measures. The ultimate aim is to provide integrated protection and cropping management on a river basin basis. It is important to survey populations of small-sized animals to see if they are still viable with large adults almost totally removed, for instance in Rapides Parish, south of Alexandria, Louisiana.
Contact person: Peter Pritchard
Budget: U.S. $25,000
Figure 3. Top: Distribution of the alligator snapping turtle (Macroclemys temminckii).
Bottom left: The ringed map turtle (Graptemys oculifera), along the Pearl River drainage.
Bottom right: The Alabama red-bellied turtle (Pseudemys alabamensis), in Mobile Bay. (All from Iverson 1986.)
This large, robust emydine turtle is limited to quiet backwaters in Mobile Bay and tributary streams in Baldwin and Mobile counties, Alabama. It is threatened because of restricted range, specialized habitat, low population numbers, and susceptibility to inadvertent harvest by fishermen. It was recently listed as "Threatened" by the USDI, who have promulgated a recovery plan.
There is a need to protect principal habitats (weed beds) and nesting and hibernation sites. Priority protection is needed for critical habitats from south of Gravine Island to the beds of submerged aquatic vegetation south of the I-10 Causeway across Mobile bay. This area needs regular wardening, enforceable seasonal access restrictions to limit inadvertent harvest by fishermen, and potentially some small land purchases.
Contact persons: C. J. McCoy and James Dobie
Budget: U.S. $20,000 initially, plus an annual maintenance budget to be determined.
This is possibly the most restricted of the sawback turtles, limited to the Pascagoula catchment in southeast Mississippi. Few thriving populations remain, and these tend to be isolated and scattered. There is critical habitat in Pascagoula River from Wade north into Leaf River at Merril.
An education programme is needed to curtail shooting of basking turtles. River pollutants need to be identified, sourced, and curtailed. Studies of relative breeding success of turtle populations in each tributary will help determine the effect of the pollutants and the prospects for species recovery.
Adult female Barbour's map turtle (Graptemys barbouri), a species confined to the Apalachicola/Chipola river system in northwestern Florida and adjacent Georgia. (Photo by P.C.H. Pritchard.)
Yucutan box turtle (Terrapene carolina yucutana), the least-known of the various subspecies of American box turtle. It is confined to the Yucutan Peninsula of Mexico, where it is rarely seen. (Photo by P.C.H. Pritchard.)
Contact person: C. J. McCoy
Budget: U.S. $25,000
This turtle is known only from the Pearl and Bogue Chitto Rivers in Mississippi and Louisiana. These are large river systems supporting an abundance of molluscs, the primary food source of the ringed sawback. The species is listed as threatened under the provision of the Endangered Species Act (1973). The principal threats appear to be habitat alteration by river engineering schemes and pollution (in the Pearl River south of Jackson).
A draft recovery plan has been prepared (Stewart 1987a). Because of the very limited knowledge on the ecology and critical habitat requirements of this species, the initial programme focuses on basic life history research and habitat evaluation. This project will concentrate on the two key populations identified by McCoy and Vogt (1980), as well as further survey work to locate other areas of critical habitat, so that their protection and appropriate management can be incorporated into the programme of regional river catchment planners and the Federal Endangered Species Program.
Contact person: Ken Dodd
Budget: U.S. $25,000
This aquatic box turtle is restricted to the specialized marshy habitats of the intermontane desert basin of Cuatro Cienegas, Coahuila State, northern Mexico. The species is threatened by habitat modification, particularly irrigation schemes, and by vir tue of its extremely limited range and habitat requirements. Captive breeding at the Gladys Parler Zoo (Brownsville, Texas) has been very successful.
Conservation priorities are to secure protected status for the turtle's remaining natural habitat and to devise a long-term management strategy to prevent inappropriate drainage schemes. This should be preceded by an up-to-date status review. Legislatio n already prohibits collecting.
Benefits for other species: there are three other freshwater turtle taxa occurring in the Cuatro Cienegas basin: Trachemys scripta taylori, Apalone spinifera ater, and A. s. emoryi. The basin also supports several endemic invertebrates and fish.
Contact person: To be determined. Meanwhile, inquiries should be directed via Specialist Group Co-chairman, Peter Pritchard.
Budget: Undetermined
There are very few extant records of this localized, terrestrial emydid turtle in northwestern Mexico, except for the single village area of Pedro Pablo, Nayarit. This is partly due to difficulty in locating animals, since they only appear after heavy rain. The overall distribution and the validity of the two described subspecies remain unclear. A full status survey is required.
Contact persons: Pat Minx and John Iverson
Budget: U.S. $25,000
This large terrestrial species, endemic to Mexico, is limited to the Bolson de Mapimi in the Chihuahuan Desert of the northcentral plateau. Localized and discontinuous populations are primarily found in Tobosa (Hilaria mutica) grasslands on shallow slopes fringing basin flood plains. It is severely threatened by human exploitation for food, habitat degradation by livestock and agriculture, and illegal trade. Collapsing distribution, depressed fecundity, nest destruction, and low juvenile survivorship contribute to minimize the recruitment rate.
The species has received detailed ecological studies and some conservation input. Three important extensions to current work are necessary:
Top priority: Purchase of the 10,000 ha Rancho Sombreritillo in Chihuahua. The ranch, which is currently for sale for around U.S. $100,000, includes the largest northern population of the Bolson tortoise, which is dense and actively reproducing. By year 2000 it could be the only viable population outside the Mapimi Reserve. Funding requirements must include provisions for fencing, maintenance, and wardening.
Contact persons: Gustavo Aguirre and David Morafka
Budget: U.S. $50,000 start up, U.S. $3,000 annually thereafter.
Continuation of radiotelemetric tracking of hatchery tortoises when released into the wild.
Contact person: Gustavo Aguirre
Budget: U.S. $15,000 (over 5 years)
Microbial and nutritional studies to improve captive hatchling viability and growth. To be coordinated with other similar projects by the T&FWT Specialist Group Captive Breeding Subcommittee (Walter Sachsse).
Contact persons: Gary Adest, Gustavo Aguirre, and David Morafka.
Budget: U.S. $7,500
Habitat loss and fragmentation caused by new developments are the major causes of the decline of this species in the southeastern U.S.A. A number of relocation studies are currently underway to establish whether doomed populations can be successfully translocated to new, safe sites. Initial results have not been encouraging, and this emphasizes the priority of securing key sites before they become threatened.
Funds are required for field work to identify the best privately-owned tortoise sites and to prepare nature reserve proposals. The results will be coordinated by The Nature Conservancy and the Gopher Tortoise Council, and specific funding appeals will be launched as sites are identified or become available.
Contact person: Dale R. Jackson
Budget: U.S. $20,000 (for hire and coordination of field personnel)
This large river turtle is being decimated throughout much of its range in southern Mexico, Guatemala, and Belize because it is very easy to catch and has excellent white meat. Eggs are also frequently taken. The previously inaccessible northern Chiapas region has recently been opened up by a new road rendering the turtle populations vulnerable to full exploitation. It is a very poorly studied species but is of particular interest in being the sole member of the family Dermatemydidae and having a completely vegetarian diet.
Comparative status survey and population ecology studies are urgently required to evaluate the potential for sustainable yield harvesting and to establish a pilot management programme. Populations to be studied are located along the Rio Tsendales and Rio San Pedro, within the fully protected Montes Azules Reserve, the Rio Lacantun in the Lacandone Forest of southern Chiapas, and the Rio Papaloapan in southern Veracruz. These areas include the last known untouched populations of this species, as well as tropical rainforest, in southern Mexico. Parallel studies of populations in large lakes and market surveys at Alvarado, Lerdo de tejada, Minatitlan, Coatzacoalcos, Villahermosa, and Catazaja will be carried out.
The current closed season must be fully enforced and realigned if found not to coincide with the principal nesting period.
Harvesting model studies will be coordinated through the T&FWT Specialist Group to provide a comparable basis with similar pilot projects on heavily exploited, large river turtles in South America, Asia, and New Guinea. Other freshwater turtle species found in association with Dermatemys will be included in the study, to provide a comprehensive evaluation of the conservation management required for the whole turtle fauna of the area. This will include species of Kinosternon, Staurotypus, Pseudemys, and Chelydra.
Initial survey work was started in October 1987, funded by the Consejo Nacional de Cienciay Tecnologia de Mexico. First results suggest that juveniles are relatively easy to rear and that the species is herbivorous throughout its life cycle. Recaptures from previous studies show that natural growth rates are faster than previously believed.
Contact person: Richard Vogt
Budget: U.S. $80,000 ($65,000 still required)
The single greatest conservation problem facing neotropical chelonians is the vast over-exploitation of the large, sometimes colonially nesting Podocnemis species. Formerly very abundant, most species are now excessively hunted for eggs and food. Most species are nominally protected in most countries within their ranges, but enforcement is generally lacking. In Brazil, despite strict protection of some nesting beaches of P. expansa, heavily armed poachers have been reported to launch raids and drive off the forestry service personnel.
Figure 4. Top: Distribution of the Central American river turtle (Dermatemys mawii).
Bottom: Distribution of the giant South American river turtle (Podocnemis expansa). (From Iverson 1986.)
There needs to be strong international pressure to encourage Brazilian authorities to increase resources for the nesting beach protection programme and to effect some spectacular arrests. Stronger conservation regulations and enforcement are also necessary in Colombia, Peru, and Venezuela to control the increasing pressure from hunters.
Most of the species have potential as economic, easily managed, renewable natural resources. Coordinated research is needed in each of the major catchments to evaluate the possibility of sustainable yield management. Extensive nest beach protection is required, as well as more general protection by means of fully enforced close seasons and catch limits. This will often require further training and motivation of the enforcement and protection agencies.
Habitat destruction is also an important cause of decline. There needs to be much greater emphasis on land protection along the Orinoco and Amazon catchments.
Colombia
Protection of P. expansa and establishment of the Cahuinari National Park along the Rio Caqueta. This is virtually the last stronghold of the species in Colombian Amazonia; the population has declined markedly due to widespread taking of adults and eggs. The proposed National Park area supports many other rare species of reptiles, birds, and mammals. The programme involves participation of local Indian communities, who will, we hope, refuse to cooperate with dealers, thus reducing commercial exploitation.
Wider ranging status surveys are needed for P. expansa and P. unifilis, focusing on the socio-economic importance of turtles in the study areas, and taking full account of local people's attitudes and needs.
Contact persons: Patricio von Hildebrand and Olga Castaño
Budget: U.S. $80,000
Two of the larger species of river terrapin in need of conservation.
Top: The Central American river turtle (Dermatemys mawii). (Photo by P.C.H. Pritchard.)
Bottom: The "Tuntong" (Batagur baska) from southeast Asia. (Photo by E.O. Moll.)
Brazil
Expansion and increased effectiveness of nest beach protection programme of Instituto Brasileiro de Desenvolvimento Florestal (IBDF), coupled with detailed population surveys, particularly along the Rios Trombetas and Tapajos in the lower Amazon basin, where P. expansa, P. unifilis, and P. sextuberculata occur sympatrically. Specific data are required on movement patterns of released hatchlings from the IBDF project to monitor the effectiveness of the programme.
Contact person: Jeanne Mortimer
Budget: U.S. $20,000 (population and movement studies)
Further population surveys are required for other pleurodiran turtles in the Amazon catchment. Studies will focus on the rarer species of Phrynops, Podocnemis, Peltocephalus, and Chelus over a wide area to establish key areas where viable populations can be protected. Radio-telemetry studies of turtle home ranges will be an essential part of reserve design, and reproductive studies will determine critical periods for maximum wardening effort.
Contact person: Richard Vogt
Budget: U.S. $50,000 for survey and project establishment; U.S. $25,000 annual maintenance budget
Peru
Full protection for P. expansa and P. unifilis in the National Reserve of Pacaya-Samiria, along the Rio Pacaya. Nesting beaches must especially be guarded and a closed season enforced. Regular monitoring of these species along Rio Pacaya is needed to assess current exploitation levels.
Contact person: Pekka Soini
Budget: U.S. $10,000
Venezuela
Excessive hunting pressure is causing a marked decrease in the wild populations of P. expansa. The Venezuelan National Guard is currently responsible for carrying out a special annual operation between January and May to protect the nesting colonies of this species on the beaches of the Orinoco River. The limited resources available to the National Guard mean that relatively little of the 400 km stretch of nesting habitat can be adequately protected.
Funding is urgently needed for the provision of three motor launches and sufficient supplies to enable teams of guards to cover the nesting area and remain on site for lengthy periods.
Population studies to monitor exploitation and the effectiveness of the nest beach protection scheme for P. expansa should be carried out. Where applicable these should also include P. unifilis and P. vogli.
Contact persons: Stefan Gorzula and Major José Lara
Budget: U.S. $28,000 for project establishment; U.S. $13,000 annual maintenance and recurrent costs; U.S. $12,000 for population monitoring
Guyana
Almost no data are available on the status of either P. expansa or P. unifilis in the Essequibo River. However, both are apparently heavily exploited and are, therefore, in need of some active conservation.
Contact person: Peter Pritchard
Budget: U.S. $12,000
The most endangered slider turtles of the genus Trachemys in the Caribbean are T. decorata on Hispaniola, and T. stejnegeri on Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, and Great Inagua (Bahamas).
Official interest in conservation of these sometimes heavily exploited species needs to be fostered by demonstrating the current population status of the species. Detailed population data are needed for developing an effective conservation programme, protective laws, and an education campaign. Baseline ecological data could be supplied from field surveys in Hispaniola, Puerto Rico and Great Inagua (for T. stejnegeri malonei). The latter is limited to a small number of freshwater ponds on the northwest corner of Great Inagua. These are vulnerable to the effects of brine floods (from the local solar salt industry) and sludge waste dumping. Large areas of the island are already protected by the Bahamas National Trust, but currently no turtle habitat is included. If the distribution and relative importance of turtle ponds can be established, there is a strong likelihood of obtaining protection of the critical habitat areas.
Contact persons: Michael Seidel and Karen Bjorndal
Budget: U.S. $5,500
A series of status surveys is required for a number of freshwater turtles of restricted distribution in Central America and Colombia. Very little is known about each of these species but all are believed to be rare and vulnerable because of their limited or fragmented range. A major difficulty in carrying out population evaluations, and hence in assessing critical habitat, is that several of these species are very secretive and are generally only seen after rain.
Rhinoclemmys areolata, a species inhabiting forests and savannahs, to be surveyed in Yucatan, southeast Mexico. Some reports indicate locally abundant populations, especially on Cozumel Island, but this needs confirmation.
Rhinoclemmys rubida, a terrestrial living species of lowland dry forests in western Mexico (central Oaxaca and Michoacan, Colima, and Jalisco). Information from collectors and locals suggests it is disappearing because of food and pet trade exploitation. An assessment of local attitudes and willingness to cooperate with a conservation management programme will therefore form a necessary part of the study.
Mexican spotted wood turtle (Rhinoclemmys rubida perixantha), a terrestrial emydid turtle from Colima and Michoacan, on the Pacific coast of Mexico. (Photo by P.C.H. Pritchard.)
Kinosternon angustipons, a species of shallow swamps, slow streams, and lagoons in Caribbean Costa Rica. To be surveyed in Costa Rica with the help of local workers.
Kinosternon dunni, known only from Río Baudo, Río Decampado, and Río San Juan drainages in the Departamento del Chocó, on the Colombian Pacific Coast.
Kinosternon oaxacae, known only from southern Oaxaca, southern Mexico. Could be combined with R. rubida for a more cost-effective exercise.
Contact person: John Iverson
Budget: U.S. $25,000
Survival recommendations are required for five rare species of side-neck chelid turtles. Full status surveys are needed for a basis of effective conservation effort. Voluntary restraints should be negotiated with major land owners to protect key habitats. Automatic back-up should be provided by coordinated captive breeding programmes.
Phrynops dahli: Very restricted range in vicinity of Sincelejo, Bolívar, Colombia. Its preferred habitat of ponds and small brooks within forest is largely destroyed.
Phrynops hogei: Limited to southeastern Brazil, in low-lying areas of the Rio Paraiba drainage in the states of Rio de Janeiro and southern Minas Gerais, and the Rio Itapemirim of southern Espirito Santo. Depleted by habitat loss and water pollution.
Phrynops rufipes: Mostly confined to the Río Vaupes drainage in southeast Colombia, along small, closed-canopy black water creeks in primary rain forest. Apparently rare throughout its range, but this may be due to secretive, nocturnal habits.
Phrynops zuliae: Only recorded from basins draining into the eastern shore of Lake Maracaibo, Venezuela. Habitat alterations in this single swamp area are probably posing a severe threat to this species.
Phrynops vanderhaegei: Confined to the Río Parana basin, from which there are very few locality records (in Paraguay and northern Argentina). One abundant population 60 km east of Asuncion has recently been identified.
Contact person: Peter Pritchard
Budget: U.S. $30,000
A number of sympatric freshwater turtle species occur in the Río Magdalena drainage in northern Colombia and are considered seriously threatened. A two stage project is envisaged:
Status and distribution studies of:
Podocnemis lewyana
Rhinoclemmys sp. (undescribed; currently listed as melanosterna)
Trachemys scripta callirostris
This will include an evaluation of the socio-economic importance of the species in the study areas to take full account of local attitudes and needs.
Specific conservation management and education programme based on the results of stage 1.
Contact person: Olga Castaño
Budget: U.S. $20,000
The National Guard already operates a protection programme for tortoises in Venezuela, that until about 1984 was fairly effective. Every year during a 90-day period before Easter, intensive checks are made by guards posted along major routes. This serves to discourage many would-be collectors, and confiscated tortoises are returned to the wild. This operates in tandem with an educational programme, which utilizes the tortoise as a symbol for the conservation of fauna.
The effectiveness of the protection programme has been eroded by the construction of new roads; an inability to set up check points in strategic passes; a change in the routine of smugglers, who are now operating earlier in the season; and easy access to new hunting areas due to the expansion of the Guri Lake impoundment on the Río Caroni. In order to increase efficiency it is necessary to:
Set up new control points along principal routes.
Carry out terrestrial and fluvial patrols in hunting areas.
Intensify the education campaign.
Funds are needed for extra equipment (jeeps and launches) and for re-publishing educational posters and leaflets.
Contact persons: Stefan Gorzula and Major José Lara
Budget: U.S.$ 65,000
Acanthochelys macrocephala has recently been found in a small area of the Pantanal region of western Brazil. No population data exist, and a full status survey is needed.
Acanthochelys pallidipectoris is mostly confined to the Chaco region of northern Argentina. This is likewise a very little known species in need of status survey.
Contact person: To be determined, meanwhile any inquiries should be addressed to Specialist Group Co-chairman, Peter Pritchard.
Budget: U.S. $25,000 (to be confirmed)
These are the most threatened of the South American testudinids. In Argentina there is widespread destruction of its preferred Chaco (open forest and grassland) habitat, and tens of thousands of animals are caught each year for the international pet trade. Others are taken for food, and eggs are taken too. Despite legal protection, controls are not enforced, and even hatchery programmes, in some cases, appear to be "covers" for large-scale collection of wild specimens.
Fully enforced legal protection to tighten trade controls and a ban on sale of tortoise artifacts as tourist souvenirs is recommended. Protected reserves covering remaining areas of prime habitat should be established and effectively wardened. This should be coupled with an education programme to deter hunting and collecting.
The taxonomic status of G. donosobarrosi in northern Patagonia needs confirmation, and habitat protection covering its range in the volcanic region of El Nevado, Mendoza, is essential. It is the only tortoise inhabiting volcanic, arid mountain habitat in continental South America. Therefore, a survey to establish the critical habitat area is needed in order to determine the most effective protection programme.
Contact persons: Tomas Waller, Susana Salas, and Enrique Richard
Budget: U.S. $10,000 for survey of G. donosobarrosi. Amount for reserve establishment to be determined.
The river terrapin is a large species inhabiting brackish and freshwater riverine habitats over a wide but increasingly fragmented range in Asia. It is very heavily exploited for its eggs and meat and has declined drastically in many areas. The best remaining populations are probably those in peninsular Malaysia and possibly Bangladesh, whereas in Thailand and Burma the species is thought to be close to extinction.
The conservation programme for Batagur baska contains three main elements:
Full status assessment of populations in the Sunderbans of India and Bangladesh, the Irrawaddy River delta in Burma and the Indragiri River in Sumatra.
Establishment of hatchery and nest site protection in Peninsular Thailand. Populations occur in Thale Sap and Thale Luang near Phattalung, from Amphur Ranote in Changwat Songkhla and from river mouth in Changwat Ranong. This should be complemented by an educational programme for local inhabitants and lobbying for legislation to protect adults.
Monitoring, expansion, and improvement of the existing hatchery programme in Malaysia, in Perak, Kedah and Terengganu states, including long-term life history studies to investigate potential for sustainable yield management. Basic components are hatcheries, head-starting, protection of adults and nesting sites, and licensing of egg collectors. The Perak project also includes captive breeding facilities.
Despite existing efforts, the threats to the populations remain, chiefly from pollution, habitat modification, and over-exploitation of eggs. Further action points to be incorporated are:
Creation of a sanctuary on the Perak River at Bota.
Habitat restoration of nesting beaches at the Kedah sites.
The Perak River project will incorporate protection and study of the "Tuntong Laut", Callagur borneoensis.
In Malaysia, all states should be encouraged to pass and enforce laws protecting the river terrapin and controlling the exploitation of its eggs. Additional efforts are needed to convince the federal authorities and state governments to reduce rate of habitat destruction and control water pollution, both serious deleterious factors for Batagur in Malaysia. A countrywide education programme in collaboration with the Department of Wildlife is needed.
Contact persons: Ed Moll and Rom Whitaker
Budget: U.S. $40,000 initially; U.S. $5,000 per year for 10 years
Figure 5a. Distribution of the "Tuntong" or river terrapin (Batagurbaska).
Figure 5b Distribution of the "Tuntong Laut" or painted terrapin (Callagur borneoensis). (From Iverson 1986.)
Like Batagur, this species is heavily exploited for its eggs and meat in southeast Asia. It inhabits estuarine and tidal sections of rivers from Thailand to Borneo, but is reported to be very rare and generally declining. It is unusual for its habit of migrating to coastal beaches, where it nests alongside marine turtles. Most east coast Malaysian nesting areas are licensed for egg collectors, and the harvest is almost total. Apart from a few eggs hatched each year at the Rantau Abang Hatchery, there is no current conservation action.
A sanctuary is needed on the Setiu-Chalok river system (supporting the largest known breeding population remaining;>200 females), and at the Kuala Baharu nesting beach, Terengganu. This would also help save a major nesting beach for olive ridley, green, and leatherback sea turtles. This should be associated with tighter licensing controls and an expanded hatchery programme. The purchase of eggs for the Rantau Abang Hatchery should be increased to at least 50% of those being taken from licensed beaches (ca. 8,000, based on 1978 estimates).
Contact person: Ed Moll
Budget: U.S. $20,000 establishment costs; U.S. $3,000 per year for 10 years
The lower reaches of the Irrawaddy River support one of the richest assemblages of freshwater turtles in the world, and most of these are thought to be under threat, or otherwise of conservation concern. Species recorded from this area are:
Batagur baska
Cyclemys dentata
Hardella thurjii
Heosemys grandis
Kachuga trivittata
Morenia ocellata
Notochelys platynota
Platysternon megacephalum
Lissemys scutata (endemic to Irrawaddy and Salween rivers)
Amyda cartilaginea
Nilssonia formosa
The little known and rare terrestrial species Geochelone platynota is endemic to the Irrawaddy valley and should be incorporated into the regional conservation plan. Indotestudo elongata and possibly Manouria impressa may also occur within the project area.
Population surveys are required for each species, together with local market surveys to assess exploitation levels. Suitable reserve and sanctuary areas need to be identified and the potential for establishing hatcheries or a sustainable yield harvesting system evaluated. The attitudes of local people towards turtles and their dependence on them for food and trade will be crucial in determining the direction and emphasis of any future conservation management programme.
Contact persons: Brian Groombridge and Ed Moll
Budget: U.S. $40,000
None of the four testudinids from Southeast Asia has been investigated in any detail, yet each is believed to be under some threat from over-exploitation.
Field surveys of status and ecology are required for each species, in at least the following countries and localities:
| N.E. India | |
| Indotestudo elongata | Jalpaiguri District of W. Bengal, Goalpara Distric of Assam-Sal forests in Orissa, Bihar, W. |
| Manouria emys | Chachar and Naga Hills, Assam |
| Bangladesh | |
| Indotestudo elongata | Chittagong Division |
| Manouria emys | Chittagong Division |
| Burma | |
| Geochelone platynota | Pegu region, Irrawaddy Valley |
| Indotestudo elongata | Upper Irrawaddy, north of Mandalay |
| Manouria emys | Throughout Burma? |
| Manouria impressa | Karenni and Shan Hills, eastern Burma |
| Thailand | |
| Indotestudo elongata | Throughout Thailand? |
| Manouria emys | Changwat Nakhan Si Thammarat, Changwat Ranong, but possibly widespread in montane habitats |
| Manouria impressa | Northwest highlands, Tak and Mae Hong Son provinces |
| Malaysia | |
| Indotestudo elongata | Forested hills in northern Malaysia |
| Manouria emys | Forested hills in northern Malaysia |
| Manouria impressa | Isolated uplands of the Kedah, and the Larut and Frasers Hills, South Perak |
Some of these species and areas are being covered by Operation Tortoise (see Chapter 4), but the full information required will necessitate supplementary work. Work in Burma is particularly essential, as local conditions permit.
Contact persons: Ian Swingland, Ed Moll, and Indraneil Das
Budget: U.S. $60,000
Exploitation of turtles in the Ganges Delta is believed to be extremely heavy. The Sunderbans area supports a wide variety of turtle species, representing a major food source for the human population. So great is the collecting pressure that several species might be locally extirpated and collectors are bringing stock from further and further afield.
Detailed population studies of the principal food species are urgently needed to evaluate the potential for a management plan relating to sustainable-yield harvesting. Sanctuaries and close season restrictions will be vital to the successful implementation of conservation in this region. Possible establishment of hatcheries should be investigated. Captive breeding back-up should be provided by the Madras Crocodile Bank for each species of conservation concern.
The following species of conservation concern occur in the delta:
| Batagur baska | Mongla River, Passur River, Sunderbans |
| Geoclemys hamiltonii | Throughout |
| Kachuga kachuga | Padma River, district of Rajshahi, Ganges |
| Chitra indica | Padma and Jamuna rivers |
| Pelochelys bibroni | Distribution in Bangladesh unknown, West Bengal Sunderbans |
Other commoner species that would benefit from conservation action in the delta are: Hardella thurjii, Kachuga dhongoka, K. smithi, K. tecta, K. tentoria, Morenia petersi, Lissemys punctata, Aspideretes gangeticus, and A. hurum. The strength of the populations of these commoner species will be crucial in determining the long-term viability of turtles as a resource in these river systems, and at the same time allowing for stronger protection of the threatened species.
A further area of major concern is the widespread use of insecticides and their effects upon aquatic organisms. These aspects need to be studied, since they are likely to have a strong bearing on the dynamics of freshwater turtle populations, and could seriously alter the validity of the exploitation levels calculated for sustainable harvesting.
Contact persons: Rom Whitaker, Ed Moll, and Charles Fugler
Budget: U.S. $50,000
In support of the previous project proposal, there needs to be a more realistic assignment of protected status on both the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act and CITES, to ensure that the endangered species are properly safeguarded. Enforcement of these regulations and closed seasons is essential for any realistic prospect of recovery of the turtle populations.
Wildlife officers must be better trained and provided with clear identification manuals for the relevant species. Proposed amendment to protected listings are given by Moll 1984 (see Appendix 3). The T&FWT Specialist Group will urge the relevant authorities to effect these changes.
Figure 6. Top: Distribution of the elongated tortoise (Indotestudo elongata).
Middle: Distribution of the Asian brown tortoise (Manouria emys).
Bottom: Distribution of the spiny turtle (Heosemys spinosa). (From Iverson 1986.)
Geoemyda silvatica is a recently rediscovered species, known only from the dense, semi-evergreen hill forests of Kerala above 300 m altitude. Localities where populations of G. silvatica have been confirmed are upland primary rain forest on the western fringes of the Anaimalai Hills. None of these areas is protected, although the species might exist in the Indira Gandhi National Park.
The Travancore tortoise (Indotestudo forstenii) is another localized endemic found naturally only in rain forest and mesic forest in the Travancore Hills in Kerala state. These tortoises are among several distinctive and poorly-known endemic reptiles and amphibians, as well as birds, mammals, and plants from the forest region of southwestern India.
Habitat protection is vital to the survival of this important faunal assemblage. Population surveys are needed to establish suitable critical habitat areas for establishing tortoise reserves. Existing protected areas offering potentially suitable habitat also need surveying for the possible occurrence of this species—e.g., the Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala.
Contact person: Brian Groombridge
Budget: U.S. $15,000
This attractive species is much sought after by the pet trade, yet does not survive well in captivity. Its sluggish, diurnal habits render it conspicuous to man. It is threatened by forest felling in its fragile natural habitat, and is believed to be endangered over much of its range in Malaysia and Thailand. Some island populations in Indonesia may still be viable.
Full, enforced legal protection is a primary requirement for this species. A status survey is needed to provide basis for appropriate forestry and watershed management. Field work needs to concentrate in the Perak region of west Malaysia.
Contact person: To be determined, meanwhile any inquiries should be addressed to Specialist Group Deputy Chairman, Ed Moll
Budget: U.S. $15,000 (to be confirmed)
This species is known only from a few hundred semi-captive individuals in a single artificial pond at the shrine of the Islamic Saint Byazid Bostami (at Nasirabad, near Chittagong). No other populations have ever been recorded. The temple pond holds very dirty water, and many older animals appear to suffer from skin infections. The turtles are strictly protected at the shrine but inherently threatened because of extremely limited range (i.e., 100m x 80m).
Other populations should be established in order to alleviate the risk of disease wiping out the entire known population. Suitable alternative sites must be located nearby or created. Associated studies on the reproductive biology of the species are needed. The taxonomic status of the species needs verification. A survey of the area is required to determine whether or not there are any other populations surviving.
Other species in the general area that could benefit from conservation input are several species of Kachuga, Lissemys punctata, Aspideretes hurum, and A. gangeticus.
Contact person: Mohd. Reza Khan
Budget: U.S. $15,000
In addition to the specific projects outlined above, status surveys are urgently required for a series of species of very restricted distribution in isolated and scattered localities throughout the Indomalayan region. Because of their isolated localities, it is unlikely that these species can easily be incorporated into other major turtle or tortoise projects in the region.
| Annamemys annamensis | Phuc Son and Fai Fo, central eastern Vietnam |
| Cistoclemmys galbinifrons | Tam Dao (Tonkin), Bach-Na (Annam), Linh-Lan (Ha-Tinh, Annam), northern Vietnam |
| Cistoclemmys hainanensis | Hainan Island, China |
| Cuora yunnanensis | Yunnan fu and Tongchuan fu, Yunnan Province, China. |
| Heosemys depressa | Arakan Hills, western Burma (could be linked with tortoise surveys in Burma) |
| Kachuga sylhetensis | Cachar Hills (Assam), Garo and Khasi Hills (Meghalaya), and Naga Hills (Nagaland) |
One area that would merit close study is Hainan Island in the South China Sea. There is a large number of chelonian taxa recorded from the island but with little supplementary information. An un-named subspecies of Cistoclemmys galbinifrons, a new species of Ocadia, and a new species of Sacalia are all believed to occur.
Contact person: P.C.H. Pritchard, Ed Moll, and David Stubbs.
Budget: Undetermined
Vietnam supports an extremely rich freshwater chelonian fauna, yet is probably the most poorly known of any country. From Iverson's world checklist (1986) a total of 20 freshwater and 2 terrestrial species are reported from this country. The sparse distribution information suggests three main areas of research:
Southern Vietnam, Mekong Delta; Cochin China.
Central Vietnam, around Hue and Da Nang; Annam.
Northern Vietnam, along the Song Koi (Red River) and its delta; Tonkin.
Distribution in Vietnam
| Species in Vietnam | South | Central | North | APR |
| Annamemys annamensis | + | 2 | ||
| Cistoclemmys galbinifrons | + | + | 2 | |
| Cuora amboinensis | + | |||
| Cuora trifasciata | + | |||
| Cyclemys dentata | + | 3 | ||
| Cyclemys tcheponensis | + | + | ||
| Geoemyda spengleri | + | + | 3 | |
| Heosemys grandis | + | |||
| Hieremys annandalii | + | |||
| Malayemys subtrijuja | + | 3 | ||
| Mauremys nigricans | + | |||
| Notochelys platynota | + | 3 | ||
| Ocadia sinensis | + | |||
| Pyxidea mouhotii | + | + | 3 | |
| Siebenrockiella crassicollis | + | |||
| Platysternon megacephalum | + | 3 | ||
| Indotestudo elongata | + | + | 1 | |
| Manouria impressa | + | 1 | ||
| Pelochelys bibroni | + | 3 | ||
| Amyda cartilaginea | + | 3 | ||
| Pelodiscus sinensis | + | |||
| Palea steindachneri | + | + |
Egyptian tortoise (Testudo kleinmanni), a dwarf tortoise from Israel to Libya, threatened by habitat destruction and over-collection. (Photo by P.C.H. Pritchard.)
Research should focus on establishing up-to-date distribution information, assessing habitat quality, investigating the economic importance of chelonians in the country—market surveys would be particularly appropriate—and reviewing the potential for specific protection measures. This will provide the basis for future direct conservation action, where necessary. The possible occurrence of Batagur baska in the south should also be investigated. In view of the majority of species occurring in the central Annam region, and the fact that this includes most of the species of conservation concern (those accorded an APR number), this area should be the priority starting point for the project.
Contact persons: To be determined; most appropriate investigators would be Soviet or Czech biologists in association with local field workers. Meanwhile inquiries should be addressed to Specialist Group Deputy Chairman Ed Moll.
Budget: U.S. $20,000
