12. Action Plan for Latin American Otters
Claudio Chehébar
Four otter species are found only in Latin America: the giant otter (Pteronura brasiliensis), the Neotropical otter (Lutra longicaudis), the southern river otter (Lutra provocax) and the marine otter (Lutra felina). There are two additional species recorded from Mexico: the North American river otter (Lutra canadensis) and the sea otter (Enhydra lutris), though this latter species is now extirpated in Latin America.
Latin America displays a great diversity of climates, from equatorial to sub-antarctic and from sea coast to the high Andes. Otters are found in most of these habitats except large arid areas. The two most widespread species are the Neotropical otter, which ranges throughout Central and South America (Figure 1), and the giant otter, which inhabits most South American countries, but is not found in Central America (Figure 2). The southern river otter (Figure 3) and the marine otter (Figure 4) are much more restricted in their range. Both have their strongholds in Patagonia. The range of the marine otter extends along the Pacific coast almost up to the equator. Most countries in South America have two species living in sympatry, usually the giant otter and the Neotropical otter. In Chile, the southern river otter and the marine otter coexist.
Three otter species in Latin America are severely threatened: the giant otter, the marine otter, and the southern river otter. The giant otter's range has been greatly reduced and its diurnal, social habits, along with its size (and consequent pelt value) make it exceptionally vulnerable; the species is severely threatened. The two Patagonian species, the marine otter and the southern river otter are of special concern due to their restricted ranges and because they are often still hunted for their pelts.
In the past, and especially during the last two centuries, humans made heavy use of otters for skins. Otter pelts were very much in demand in the international market during the first half of this century. Since the 1960s the hunting pressure declined significantly, due to the growing concern for wildlife conservation and because of the participation of Latin American countries in CITES. Nevertheless, otters are still hunted in several parts of the continent. Enforcement of bans on hunting and trading is made difficult by the poverty of many people who harvest wildlife illegally and by the weakness of the governmental natural resources departments.
There are two major threats to otters in Latin America today: habitat destruction and water pollution. Habitat destruction includes deforestation, clearing or alteration of riparian vegetation, and drainage of wetlands for agricultural or other uses. Water pollution, already serious in some areas of heavy agricultural or industrial use, is now being made worse by the heavy metal pollution in some portions of the Amazon basin as a result of gold mining operations.
Neotropical otter (Lutra longicaudis) in Mexico (Photo by Juan Pablo Gallo).
The “agricultural frontier” is still expanding into the major wildlands of South America. Unless wise use is made of these areas, the short-term development that is driven by the problem of external debt could result in the continuing decrease of the wildlife resources, including the otters.
The system of protected areas has grown substantially in recent decades and this provides important protection opportunities for otters. Nevertheless, the concept of hydrological basin management and planning should be put into practice as protected areas alone will probably not guarantee the long-term survival of otters.
Otter surveys have been conducted in very few and relatively small areas, so evaluations of status in the future will need the input of extensive surveys. Due to the enormity of the South American continent and adjacent Central America, and the short time scale necessary for conservation action, field surveys which cover large areas with less detail are to be preferred over very detailed ones in small areas. Surveys are especially needed in large wild areas such as the Amazon, the Pantanal, and the southern Pacific channels and islands. Trends in habitat condition on a large scale, like the evaluation of riparian vegetation and the total wetland area, should also be assessed.
A monitoring program, with some degree of coordination, should be organized, particularly for a close follow-up of some giant otter, marine otter, and southern river otter populations. There is also an urgent need for knowledge about basic features of the ecology, natural history and behavior of the four Latin American otter species.
Concern about otter protection is getting stronger in Latin America. In 1984, the First Working Meeting of Experts in Aquatic Mammals of South America was held in Buenos Aires, Argentina. This meeting included a workshop on conservation status of otters, which produced species accounts and recommendations. There is now a need to consolidate this process to arrive at a more precise knowledge of the status of various species, and to promote effective conservation measures.
A growing number of people are working on otter research and conservation in Latin America. It is very important to support the work of existing local groups or institutions which are already doing research and conservation work in this region. Only then can effective conservation action be taken.
The remainder of this chapter considers the status and conservation requirements of Latin American otters in greater detail on a country by country basis.
Species Present
Neotropical otter, southern river otter, marine otter, giant otter
Status and Distribution
The Neotropical otter is still widespread in the central and northern portions of the country. However, the distribution of this species is becoming fragmented, and its range continues to diminish. There are still important populations in the Parana River Delta, Esteros del Ibera, the humid Chaco, and the subtropical forests of the northwest. It is present in all eight national parks and all the provincial reserves in its range.
The southern river otter is rare and much restricted in range in Argentina (Chehébar 1985; Chehébar and Benoit 1988). Although it has probably always had a restricted natural distribution, surveys in the northern portion of the Andean-Patagonic region reveal that it has disappeared from several areas. Only one important population remains today, that of the Nahuel Huapi Basin and nearby sub-basins, with occasional sightings in other freshwater Andean systems. Though more surveys are needed in the southern portion of the Patagonian Andes, it seems never to have been common or present there. The only other known population lives on Staten Island (near Tierra del Fuego) and its status needs to be evaluated. This species is considered endangered in Argentina.
The marine otter has always been somewhat marginal in Argentina, but is now on the verge of extinction. It was at one time abundant in the Beagle Channel, as Darwin stated in Voyage of the Beagle, but is now extirpated from the Argentine portion of the Beagle Channel. The only known population lives on Staten Island (in sympatry with the southern river otter) where its status needs to be evaluated. The southern river otter uses the inland freshwater systems and the quiet coastal habitats, while the marine otter uses the rough marine coasts.
The giant otter and the jaguar are possibly the two most endangered mammal species today in Argentina. The giant otter has suffered a dramatic reduction in range. Its former distribution was the Uruguay and Parana River catchments, with populations in the Mesopotamia region, the Eastern Humid Chaco, and the subtropical jungles of Misiones province. Today there are occasional sightings of individuals (no longer groups) in the northernmost fringe of the Misiones province, particularly in Iguazu National Park. There are unconfirmed indications of a population in Esteros del Ibera, and some southern tributaries of the Uruguay River in the Corrientes province. This species is also considered to be on the verge of extinction.
Legal Status
All four species are protected.
Threats
Habitat destruction due to human encroachment is the principal threat. In the north of the country, deforestation is proceeding at an alarming rate. In the Andean-Patagonic region, the remnant southern river otter populations, though rather well protected in National Parks, are threatened by habitat alteration in the semi-arid fringe containing the rivers which connect the different basins. Also, the construction of hydroelectric dams in these semi-arid, sub-Andean areas renders the shorelines of the newly-created lakes inadequate for otters, and it will be many years before soil and vegetation cover develops again.
In the center and north, water pollution is increasingly affecting catchments, along with siltation due to soil erosion. Increased use of pesticides and fertilizers, and effluents from industrial centers, are sources of concern.
Neotropical otters are still hunted in some areas. Though a regular and strong demand for pelts has not existed for some time, very recently some large illegal stocks have been sequestered by wildlife officials.
The isolation of remnant populations (especially of the giant otter, the marine otter, and the southern river otter) is in itself an important problem.
Southern river otter (Lutra provocax) in Argentina (Photo by Claudio Chehébar).
Conservation Priorities
Survey the Misiones province to evaluate giant otter populations there; support projects to search for the giant otter in Corrientes Province (Esteros del Ibera). Support protected area management in Misiones.
Protect Staten Island (Tierra del Fuego), where the southern river otter and the last remnant population of the marine otter survive.
Survey otters on Staten Island.
Hydroelectric projects and agricultural schemes should take into account the habitat requirements of otters.
A publicity campaign should be carried out to promote awareness of the critical situation of the most endangered species of otters in Argentina.
Extensive surveys of the Neotropical otter are needed, as well as support for law enforcement to control poaching.
Ongoing studies on the southern river otter should be encouraged. Monitoring of this species should be coordinated with similar efforts in Chile.
Species Present
Neotropical otter
Status and Distribution
The Neotropical otter is reported to occur in fair numbers (Florence 1986), but there is no further recent information on status or distribution.
Legal Status
No recent information.
Threats
None reported so far.
Conservation Priorities
A survey is needed before any conservation needs can be assessed.
Species Present
Neotropical otter, giant otter
Status and Distribution
The Neotropical otter presumably has a wide distribution, excepting the Altiplano and the southeastern Chaco. A recent survey in Amboro National Park (on the eastern slope of the oriental Andean range) found a good population of this species. As important tracts of forest remain, the prospects seem good in this country (Melquist 1984), but there are few data. It has been reported that this species is found in all of Bolivia's national parks (Dunstone and Strachan 1988).
Figure 1. Distribution of the Neotropical otter (Lutra longicaudis).
The giant otter is apparently restricted to isolated populations in and around the Reserva Nacional de Fauna Manuripi, in Pando province. It is also a rare visitor to Amboro National Park (Tello, in Dunstone and Strachan 1988). There is little further information.
Legal Status
Both species are protected.
Threats
With respect to poaching, there is some illegal trade in skins, but this has apparently reduced as there is no longer a strong market. No further information is available.
Conservation Priorities
Not clear at present.
Species Present
Neotropical otter, giant otter
Status and Distribution
The Neotropical otter has a wide distribution all over the country. It lives in several protected areas and is also found in marine habitats such as those in the states of Santa Catarina and Rio de Janeiro. The main decreases have occurred in the more developed south. Some survey work has been done in small areas in the south and in the Amazon, but most of the country has yet to be surveyed. The species is considered to be diminishing and vulnerable.
The giant otter is endangered. It has disappeared from most of the southern half of the country. Some good but apparently isolated populations remain in the Pantanal, Rio Negro (Matto Grosso do Sul), and in thin populations in the Parana-Iguacu area (together with Argentina). In the north, there are populations in the Amazon basin, but their status has not been evaluated, except for some local surveys near hydroelectric projects. This species is considered to be marginally protected by the protected areas system. It was seriously threatened by intensive hunting, and from 1950 to 1975 underwent a most dramatic reduction. Populations now seem to be recovering in some areas due to alleviation of hunting pressure. However, new threats have emerged, which are stressing populations that were already seriously impaired by past over-harvesting.
Legal Status
Both species are protected.
Threats
Habitat destruction is proceeding rapidly in the southern industrial states. Deforestation has reduced the original 85% forest cover of Santa Catarina state to 6%. Also, deforestation continues in the Amazon region.
Water pollution is of growing concern, due to the growing agriculture, agro-industries, and wood industry. A serious problem, with dangerous potential for otters and all the aquatic biota and humans, is the mercury pollution being produced by the washing of gold in the “garimpos” in portions of the Amazon basin.
Hunting for fur of both species has decreased substantially since the 1960s, when otter hunting was completely banned (1967). Since 1980, the government has not sequestered any hides of the Neotropical otter and, since 1986, of the giant otter. However, some illegal hunting still persists, partially because of conflicts with fishermen and poultry. Some export trade of the giant otter (which is illegal under Brazilian law) is believed to continue, taking advantage of the caiman trade through Paraguay and Bolivia. The price of one giant otter hide is said to equal three first quality caiman hides.
Several large hydroelectric projects have been or are being constructed in the Amazon basin and their potential impact upon otters has not yet been assessed. There are some concerns about the effects on the normal flow of animals along the basins and also the habitat alteration and human encroachment encouraged by these projects. All these changes could be detrimental through bottleneck effects, especially for the giant otters.
Conservation Priorities
Establish protected areas which include populations of the giant otter, especially in the Pantanal and the Amazon basin.
Monitor closely the main identified populations, especially of the giant otter.
Address immediately the growing problem of water pollution in the Amazon basin.
Continue and improve the ongoing protected areas management and monitor closely the otter populations in these reserves.
Encourage the continuation of otter research and survey efforts now under way by local workers, particularly in the Amazon, Santa Catarina, and the Pantanal, and make it possible for them to be extended to larger areas.
Establish a program for the protection of the giant otter by coordinating and broadening the efforts currently in practice.
Ensure that the requirements of the otters be considered in hydroelectric projects.
Evaluate the feasibility and need of restocking giant otters via translocation in some areas of the Pantanal.
Species Present
Southern river otter, marine otter
Status and Distribution
The southern river otter is considered endangered. The original distribution was from 36° S to the Magellanic region, the southern islands and Cape Horn. Its range has contracted in the northern portion, and the species is now extinct from south of Temuco to near Santiago. This species has disappeared from the northern fringe of its former range due to overhunting and habitat alteration, especially the clearing of riparian vegetation. Important populations persist in the southern portion of the country (XI region and southward). There are freshwater populations from Aysen to the north. The marine and estuarine populations from Aysen to the south seem to be of higher density than the freshwater ones, and also have a much larger total amount of habitat including oceanic islands and fjords (canales). This species also lives in several protected areas.
The marine otter is considered by most authorities to be threatened or endangered. There are important populations from Chiloe Island to the south, along the coasts and islands of the southern Pacific (Cabello 1983; Sielfeld 1983). The marine otter coexists with the southern river otter and the two species divide the habitat neatly. The marine otter lives in the exposed and wavy shores and the southern river otter is found in the quiet and calm bays and inlets. The marine otter is very endangered in the northern portion of the country, with isolated nuclei near Chanaral, Caldera, and Coquimbo. It is rare in central Chile (remnants near Valparaiso and Quintay), where the species is more vulnerable due to more limited suitable habitat north of Chiloe. It is marginally present in the protected areas system.
Giant otter (Pteronura brasiliensis) (Photo courtesy of the Chicago Zoological Society).
Figure 2. Distribution of the giant otter (Pteronura brasiliensis).
Legal Status
Both species are protected.
Threats
Poaching of both otters for domestic use continues, with most of the pressure on the marine otter. Poaching is difficult to control due to the inaccessibility of many areas and because of the economic incentives to fishermen with low incomes.
Riparian vegetation destruction and freshwater pollution in central Chile is an increasing threat.
Deforestation in some areas of southern Chile is advancing.
Pollution of nearshore areas with heavy metals and other toxic substances from the mining of minerals (such as copper) in northern Chile, and by sewage and garbage in central Chile.
Intense harvesting of littoral and sublittoral algae (especially Lessonia spp. and Macrocystis spp.). Exploitation of kelps may reduce productivity and abundance of invertebrates and fishes on which the otters depend.
Over-exploitation by fishermen of nearshore invertebrates and fishes, on which otters depend for food.
Fishing techniques that result in accidental capture and drowning of otters in nets.
Conservation Priorities
Monitor closely the marine otter populations of the central and northern parts of the country.
Support the work being done on both species by several local institutions and researchers, and extend these efforts geographically, in order to arrive at a more precise picture of the status of populations, and changes in population size over time.
Develop techniques for accurate census taking.
Study the impact of human harvesting of kelps and shellfish on otters, particularly in central and northern Chile.
Determine the annual schedules of mating, birth, and lactation of both species. Determine home range size, habitat use patterns, and diet in various areas.
Produce teaching materials for study of both species in school and university programs.
Survey the extensive islands and canals of the southern Pacific, a region not yet severely modified. It is important to have a good picture of otter status there before any major development begins.
Determine the routes by which illegally obtained otter furs are transported and sold, and support the enforcement of the existing legislation banning hunting and trade.
Coordinate with Argentina a common monitoring and protection program for the southern river otter.
Establish parks and reserves in areas important for remnant populations in northern and central Chile, and established populations in the south.
Species Present
Neotropical otter, giant otter
Status and Distribution
The Neotropical otter can be found throughout the lowlands, the slopes of the Andes, the Magdalena river drainage of the intermountain region, the swampy areas between Barranquilla and Santa Marta, and the west slope of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Maria (northeastern Colombia). The status in the lowlands is probably quite good (Melquist 1984) and there still seem to be important populations.
The giant otter still has relatively important populations in Colombia; this country is perhaps one of the strongholds of this highly threatened species. Populations are reported from some areas in the llanos and lowland tropical forests east of the Andes (Melquist 1984). There are giant otters in El Tuparro and Sierra de la Macarena National Parks, Arauca Sanctuary, and Miritiparena River. No further information is available on present trends and status.
Legal Status
Both species are protected.
Threats
No detailed information yet available on specific threats, though they are likely to be similar to those in neighboring countries.
Conservation Priorities
Surveys of the status of both species are needed.
Strict protection of viable populations in reserves is a high priority.
Species Present
Neotropical otter
Status and Distribution
This otter is found in suitable habitat throughout Costa Rica, except in the highest mountain streams, though it occurs up to 2,800 m. It is considered common, especially in the province of Alajuela, and the San Carlos River. Most of the many protected areas of Costa Rica have otters. Prospects for survival are very good (Melquist 1984).
Legal Status
Protected.
Threats
Deforestation and alteration of riparian habitat is the main threat, although good amounts of adequate habitat still remain.
Pollution and hunting are potential threats.
Figure 3. Distribution of the southern river otter (Lutra provocax).
Conservation Priorities
Extensive status surveys are needed throughout the country.
Protected area management should include consideration of the special needs of otters.
A study is needed of the biology and ecological requirements of the Neotropical otter in Costa Rica.
Species Present
Neotropical otter, giant otter
Status and Distribution
The Neotropical otter is distributed throughout the entire country, including the Andean highlands (e.g. Nangaritza, Yacuambi, and Zamora Rivers). This otter is probably still fairly common in the Oriente tropical forest and perhaps in parts of the northwest. However, in the Sierra, very little riparian habitat has been preserved.
The giant otter is found only in isolated locations of the lowland tropical forests of eastern Ecuador including Bobonaza and Ishpingo Rivers near the eastern frontier, and Cuyabeno, Guapi, Lagarto Cocha, and Tarapuy Rivers in the northeast. All of these are tributaries of the Aguarico, Pastiza, and Putumayo Rivers (Melquist 1984). There are giant otters in the Cuyabeno Faunal Reserve, and the Yanumi National Park.
Legal Status
Both species are protected.
Threats
Habitat destruction (deforestation) in the Andean Sierra has left very little riparian habitat.
Illegal trade in pelts of unknown magnitude still persists.
Conservation Priorities
Monitor the identified giant otter populations.
Survey to locate other giant otter populations.
Make efforts to protect and restore riparian habitat.
No recent information available, though the Neotropical otter might occur.
Species Present
Neotropical otter, giant otter
Status and Distribution
The Neotropical otter is considered to be widely distributed (Broad 1987), and Melquist (1984), extrapolating from research in adjacent countries, suggested that population levels probably remain stable and healthy. Little information is available on the giant otter. Melquist (1984) presumed it to be widely distributed in the interior, though at fewer sites than the Neotropical otter.
Legal Status
No recent information.
Threats
None so far reported.
Conservation Priorities
A survey is required to assess conservation needs, especially since otter populations could be quite significant.
No recent information available, though the Neotropical otter occurs.
Species Present
Neotropical otter, giant otter
Status and Distribution
The Neotropical otter and the giant otter are widespread throughout the country, though the giant otters are more concentrated in fewer sites. Giant otters are reported from at least Morawhanna area, Russel Lake, Lama and Maduni Creeks (where E. Laidler studied them), Mahaica River, Abary River, Mashivean River, and Morewan River (Melquist 1984). The status of both species seems healthy and stable, Guyana being, along with Suriname and French Guiana, one of the strongholds of these species.
Legal Status
The giant otter is protected. The Neotropical otter is not specifically protected by internal laws but is subject to CITES regulations.
Threats
No information available, though potential threats are likely to be similar to those in neighboring countries.
Conservation Priorities
Monitor closely the identified populations, particularly of giant otters.
Survey the country for distribution and status of both species, with a view to assessing what conservation action is necessary.
Species Present
Neotropical otter
Status and Distribution
The Neotropical otter occurs in the principal rivers of the eastern side of the country, some of the watersheds along the northern coast, and in a few areas in the south. Most reports are from the east in the Mosquitia region, including the Departments of Olancho, Gracias a Dios, and Colon. The species might survive in the west, but little suitable habitat survives there.
Legal Status
Protected by legal resolutions issued by the Natural Resources Directorate in the Ministry of Natural Resources, but thus far, no formal protective legislation has been approved by Congress.
Threats
The principal threat is the destruction of habitat, especially river banks, as a result of human settlements and the relocation of people along the Rio Patuca and affluents in the Gracias a Dios Department.
Figure 4. Distribution of the marine otter (Lutra felina).
Conservation Priorities
Formal wildlife legislation needs to be enacted by Congress.
Surveys are needed to establish the population status and distribution, especially in the east of the country, and to identify suitable sites for reserves.
Note: this section was authored by Juan Pablo Gallo-Reynoso.
Species Present
Neotropical otter, North American river otter, sea otter (?)
Status and Distribution
Otters in Mexico are becoming rare and/or endangered due to habitat destruction. Fragmentation of their habitat could be the major threat in the near future. Poaching is not of sufficient magnitude to produce a decline in otter populations.
The North American river otter is known to occur in the Mexican states of Baja California and Sonora (Colorado River delta), Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, and Tamaulipas, but there are only four records, so information is very scarce.
The Neotropical otter is the best known otter in Mexico (Gallo-Reynoso in press). It is found in the high Sierras and mountain slopes facing the Pacific Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico, from 1,700 m to the coastal plains, and inhabits creeks, rivers, lakes, mangrove swamps, irrigation canals, and dams all over the country's neotropical zone. This species occurs from 30° N to 13° N on the Pacific slopes and from 16° N to 24° N on the Gulf of Mexico slopes. It is absent over the entire Mexican highlands, even though they were once quite common there. They have been observed in the states of Tamaulipas, San Luis Potosi, Puebla, Veracruz, Tabasco, Campeche, Yucatan, Quintana Roo, Chiapas, Oaxaca, Guerrero, Morelos, Mexico, Michoacan, Colima, Jalisco, Zacatecas, Nayarit, Sinaloa, Durango, Sonora, and Chihuahua.
The sea otter is considered to be extirpated from Mexican waters and has not been recorded since 1912, except for a skull observed in 1979 in Rancho Nuevo (Baja California, 28° N), and one sighting on the very tip of Baja California Peninsula in January 1989. It is believed that several animals from the California population wandered there but did not establish reproductive colonies on the Mexican coast.
Legal Status
Article 8 of the Federal Law of Hunting lists the wildlife under permanent protection because the species in question are considered threatened or endangered. The Neotropical otter is number 9 on this list. All Mexican otters are covered by this article. Certain areas of high diversity (including rivers where otters are distributed) have been declared National Parks or Biosphere Reserves.
Threats
Large-scale habitat destruction is resulting from traditional cultivation methods such as the burning and clearing of tropical forests and the opening of land for cattle production.
Land reclamation for oil extraction and the filling of wetlands for the same purpose is also destroying otter habitats.
Pollution of waterways with industrial, agricultural, and municipal wastes is threatening the food chain upon which otters depend.
Clear river waters are being abused for the use of everincreasing urban areas.
Fishing methods, such as the use of poisons from toxic plants, small amounts of TNT, quicklime, and electroshocking, are causing the disruption of entire ecosystems.
Otters are killed for their fur to supplement the family economy of poor areas, and also for their meat in certain areas of Mexico. Otters are sometimes taken in pup stages as pets in coastal areas of Mexico. There is no large-scale hunting and there are no black markets for their pelts. Even so, otter skins have been found in the handicraft industry and in tourist shops.
Conservation Priorities
More detailed surveys of the presence of the North American river otter and the sea otter should be conducted in the near future to obtain an accurate indication of their distribution and status.
More detailed surveys of the presence of the Neotropical otter on the mountain slopes of the Gulf of Mexico as well as in the northern Pacific mountain slopes are needed to obtain an accurate indication of its distribution and status.
More scientific studies are needed on the general biology, behavior, reproduction, ecology, and environmental requirements of otters in Mexico.
Species Present
Neotropical otter
Status and Distribution
The Neotropical otter occurs in small populations along most of the rivers flowing into the Atlantic. The best populations are probably in the southeast of the country. In the center of the country it is reported as reduced in numbers in the Iyas and Blanco Rivers. On the Pacific coast the species has been extirpated for over 30 years due to extensive agriculture (mainly cotton) and livestock developments.
Legal Status
Protected, with internal trade in pelts prohibited in 1977.
Threats
Deforestation and the resulting sedimentation in rivers is destroying otter habitat, especially around Minas de Rosita and Bonanza y Siuna.
Conservation Priorities
A survey is required to assess conservation needs. Excessive deforestation needs to be curtailed, with strict protection being given to water catchments. Riparian habitats need to be conserved and steps should be taken to prevent soil erosion resulting from unwise land management practices.
Species Present
Neotropical otter
Status and Distribution
The Neotropical otter is distributed throughout the country, where streams in rain forest provide excellent habitat. However, it is not common, though there is apparently a good population in the undisturbed areas around the Rio Teribe.
Legal Status
Protected.
Threats
Even where substantial amounts of natural habitat remain, deforestation is proceeding rapidly and is a potential threat. Hunting is not a serious problem.
Conservation Priorities
A survey is needed of the status, distribution, and conservation requirements of the Neotropical otter in Panama.
Species Present
Neotropical otter, giant otter
Status and Distribution
The Neotropical otter is found primarily in the smaller streams of eastern Paraguay and the marshy areas and tributaries of the Pilcomayo and Paraguay Rivers. The departments of Concepcion and Amambay in the northeast, and Neembucu, Misiones, and Itapua in the south are reported as having healthy populations (Melquist 1984). Populations are probably stable, although there are no data from surveys.
Giant otters (Pteronura brasiliensis) (Photo by Andre Bartschi).
The giant otter lives in tributaries of the Paraguay and Parana Rivers. Remnant populations may exist in the marshes adjacent to Pilcomayo and Paraguay Rivers in the south. There is a great need for good distribution and status information (Melquist 1984).
Legal Status
Both species are protected.
Threats
Deforestation in the east is proceeding rapidly.
Trade in otters has probably declined significantly since the ban in 1975, but poaching and illegal trade of unknown magnitude persists.
Existing and proposed hydroelectric dams on the Parana River will force giant otters further up the headwaters of tributaries and isolate these populations (Melquist 1984).
Conservation Priorities
Monitor and support the protection of identified populations of the giant otter.
Surveys to determine precisely the status and distribution of both species.
Support the effective enforcement of the hunting regulations.
Species Present
Neotropical otter, marine otter, giant otter
Status and Distribution
The Neotropical otter has a widespread distribution in the country, including high Andean areas up to 3,000 meters (Grimwood 1969) and some rivers west of the Andes. Its strongholds seem to be in the Amazon region.
The marine otter is at the northern limit of its distribution (6° S latitude) in Peru. It occurs in discontinuous pockets of suitable habitat all along the Peruvian coast. Consequently, populations are probably small and isolated (Brack 1978; Melquist 1984). The population numbers are not precisely known, but sightings are regularly reported at several localities such as Moro de Suma, Chala, Paracas National Reserve, Naplo, Paraiso, Ancon, and Pachacamac Island. The status of the species seems to be stable.
The giant otter lives east of the Andes, mainly confined to the lowland rain forests, with isolated populations occurring in secluded tributaries of the Amazon. This species has been intensively hunted in the past and now there are only remnant populations, whose status is not precisely known.
Legal Status
All three species are protected.
Threats
Habitat destruction through deforestation is a major threat.
Pollution of nearshore areas with heavy metals and other toxic substances from mining, and with sewage and garbage.
Oil exploration is intensifying, which provides easy human access to formerly undisturbed areas.
Even though trade has decreased significantly since a hunting ban in 1973, some unknown amount of illegal commerce still persists, involving the Neotropical otter and the giant otter.
The marine otter is not hunted for its fur, but is killed because of conflicts with fishermen and prawn harvesters.
Conservation Priorities
Monitor closely the main identified populations, particularly the giant otters of Manu National Park, and the main nuclei of the marine otter along the coast. 2. Develop techniques for accurate census-taking and survey the entire country extensively.
Study population changes over time.
Support the enforcement of hunting prohibitions.
Establish parks and reserves in areas important for remnant and established populations.
Species Present
Neotropical otter, giant otter
Status and Distribution
The Neotropical otter is distributed throughout the country, including small streams in the Guiana highlands and the agricultural canal systems of the coastal belt (Duplaix 1980; Melquist 1984). Its status is considered healthy and stable.
The giant otter, although widely distributed as well, is more concentrated at fewer sites. Giant otters also occur in the agricultural canal systems. In the highlands they reach lower elevations than the Neotropical otter. Giant otters have been reported from Corantijn, Nickerie, Wayombo, Coppename, and Commewijne Rivers (Duplaix 1980; Suriname Forest Service 1987). The status of this species seems stable and relatively healthy. Suriname, along with French Guiana and Guyana, is one of the few remaining areas with healthy populations of giant otters.