11. Action Plan for Asian Otters
Pat Foster-Turley and Charles Santiapillai
Five species of otter are known from Asia. They are: the Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra), the smooth otter (Lutra per spicillata), the hairy-nosed otter (Lutra sumatrana), the Asian smallclawed otter (Aonyx cinerea), and the sea otter (Enhydra lutris). The sea otter is thoroughly covered in Chapter 8, and will not be considered again here. Likewise, what is known of the Eurasian otter in the Asian regions of the Soviet Union is covered in Chapter 9.
Throughout their distribution in Asia, otters are being threatened by a combination of habitat destruction, hunting, and environmental pollution, especially from the organochlorines. The demand for natural resources in the Asian region is bound to increase sharply. The human population is predicted to reach 3.4 billion by the year 2000 and is not expected to stabilize below 6 billion in the latter part of the twenty-first century. This growth rate alone indicates a doubling in the demand on the natural resources every 30 years or less. In reality, the situation is likely to be worse than this, since most Asian economies are booming, and the resource use per person can be expected to increase drastically over the next 20 years. One of the consequences of the burgeoning human population across Asia is the rapid conversion of forests to other land uses. The conversion of forests in general and the riparian vegetation in particular is a serious conservation problem in Asia. Otters are among the animals that suffer.
Direct threats to the otters in Asia include killing them for their pelts, or for their organs, which are thought to have medicinal value in some regions. Otters are also sometimes killed because they are thought to compete with fishermen, or because of their depredations upon fish-farming operations. The indirect threats such as pollution of the environment with industrial and agricultural wastes are even more serious. Of particular concern are the organochlorines, especially PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls), which are bio-magnified at the top of the food chain. As the level of PCBs in the wetlands increases, there is usually a general decline in aquatic mammals, such as otters. It is therefore quite alarming to note that large quantities of PCBs are still in use in Asian countries. Unless these are collected and destroyed, they will remain a potent threat to the survival of the otters and other wildlife in the wetlands. Evidence suggests that the accumulation of PCBs has been largely responsible for the widespread decline of populations of the Eurasian otter in Western Europe (Mason and Macdonald 1986a). A similar problem could be developing in Asia. In many countries in Asia where otters were once common, they have disappeared due to a combination of these direct and indirect threats. In Hong Kong, Japan, and Singapore, otters are believed to be extirpated, and otters of all species are rare in much of the rest of Asia.
Asian small-clawed otter (Aonyx cinerea) at the Bronx Zoo, New York, United States (Photo courtesy of New York Zoological Society).
Despite the overall pessimistic condition facing otters in Asia, there are some causes for guarded optimism as well. In Peninsular Malaysia, for instance, otters are still widespread in many areas, even beyond the boundaries of protected areas. In other countries, healthy populations of otters remain in national parks and preserves. Indonesia in particular has an excellent system of protected areas that covers all the major habitat types and ecosystems. However, the main problem is in protecting these areas from those activities of people that are incompatible with otter survival. National parks and other protected areas are prone to environmental disturbances outside their boundaries. Herein lies the crux of the problem concerning the conservation of otters in Asia.
With the exception of the sea otter, little is known about the natural behavior and ecology of the Asian otters, apart from the summaries in general field guides and mammalogy references like Medway (1978), Lekagul and McNeely (1977), Roberts (1977), and Nowak and Paradiso (1983). This information is summarized below, as presented at the Fifth International Otter Colloquium (Foster-Turley in press).
The Asian small-clawed otter is the smallest of the world's otters, rarely weighing more than 5 kilograms. A gregarious species, it is often seen in large groups of up to 15 animals (Furuyu 1977), and captive studies suggest that these groups are composed of an alpha breeding pair and their offspring from successive litters (Foster-Turley and Engfer 1988). Asian small-clawed otters have unusual hand-like front paws with increased tactile sensitivity (Radinsky 1968) and reduced webbing, which they use to forage for their prey of crustaceans, molluscs, and small fish. Asian small-clawed otters are found from Palawan (Philippines) through Indonesia, southeast Asia, southern China, and westwards through the Himalayan foothills of Bangladesh, Bhutan, and Nepal. A disjunct population occurs in southern India (see Figure 1.).
Smooth otters are so-named for their shorter, smoother coats, as compared to the similar-sized sympatric Lutra species. From captive studies (Desai in press) this otter appears to be monogamous and is usually seen year-round in small family groups. Although little is known about the ecology of this species, it is known to occur in a variety of Asian habitats, from mangroves, to freshwater wetlands and large forested rivers. The smooth otter is distributed throughout southern Asia from Indonesia, through southeast Asia, and westwards through southern China and India, with an isolated population in Iraq (see Figure 2). In most of its range it is sympatric with the Asian small-clawed otter and sometimes the other Lutra species. Of all the Asian otters, this one seems to be the most common through most of its range.
The Eurasian otter has been well-studied in Europe (Chanin 1985;Mason and Macdonald 1986a), but its ecology in Asia remains unknown. Eurasian otters are primarily fish-eaters, although they also eat other vertebrates and crustaceans. In Europe these otters tend to be solitary and generally at low density when found in freshwater rivers and marshes, but are more numerous in coastal environments where food is more plentiful. In Asia, they are very elusive and rare. They are especially susceptible to human-induced disturbances and thus occur mostly in higher altitude streams and other remote areas. The Eurasian otter is widely distributed throughout all of Eurasia from Western Europe to the Northern Pacific coast and south through Central and Southeast Asia (see Figure 3). More information is also provided in Chapter 9 (on its status in Europe) and Chapter 10 (on its status in North Africa).
The hairy-nosed otter is the rarest and the least known of the Asian otters and is also the most difficult to identify in the field. It gets its name from the presence of hair on its rhinarium; in most other respects it is similar to the Eurasian otter. It is probably verging on extinction in the northern parts of its range, and is of uncertain status elsewhere. This otter was once found from southern Indochina and Thailand through Malaysia and Indonesia (Sumatra, Java, and Borneo), although its current distribution is unknown (see Figure 4)
Information for the following country by country accounts was compiled from data presented at the First International Asian Otter Symposium held in Bangalore, India, in October 1988, and from responses to a questionnaire mailing. All correspondents providing information on their countries are gratefully acknowledged in Appendix 2.
The Eurasian otter has been recorded, but there is no recent information on its status.
Species Present
Asian small-clawed otter, smooth otter, Eurasian otter
Status and Distribution
All species of otters were once widespread throughout the country but habitat destruction and human encroachment now confines them mostly to certain wetland areas and remaining tracts of forest.
The Asian small-clawed otter is very rare and found in small numbers in forested areas in Chittagong and the Chittagong Hill Tracts, in wetlands in Sylhet and in the Sunderban Forest in Khulna. It is non-existent in most populated and agricultural areas, although it has been sighted in homestead areas around Dhaka.
The smooth otter is the most common otter throughout Bangladesh, although its distribution and numbers are shrinking. It is common in forested areas in Barisal, Chittagong, and the Chittagong Hill Tracts, in the wetlands and homestead areas of Mymensingh, and the Sunderbans Forest and homestead areas of Khulna. This otter is common in homestead areas around Dhaka and is also occasionally sighted in all other districts of Bangladesh.
The Eurasian otter is very rare and found in small numbers in forested areas in Chittagong and the Chittagong Hill Tracts and in the wetlands of Mymensingh and Sylhet districts. It is non-existent in agricultural and homestead areas throughout the country except for occasional sightings in Dhaka and Mymensingh districts.
Legal Status
Protected: internal and external trade and local consumption are banned.
Threats
Habitat destruction due to human encroachment. Forests are now restricted to less than 9% of the total land area, and more land is continually being cleared for agricultural or maricultural use. Brushy cover near homestead areas is disappearing due to fuelwood collection, and herbaceous plants and aquatic vegetation in wetland areas are also collected for fuel.
Otters are killed because of perceived competition with fishermen. More than five million people are dependent on fishing for their livelihood and many of these fisherman still depend on tame otters to drive fish into their nets. Historically these otters have been reared in captivity.
Otters are hunted illegally for the fur trade and sometimes for meat. CITES reports that 3,558 skins of smooth otter, originating from Bangladesh, entered international trade in 1980, with a further 427 in 1982.
Large-scale local embankment, and dike, dam, and road construction throughout the country is altering the free flow of water and drying up some bodies of water.
Heavy use of pesticides and fertilizers is contaminating many ponds and water bodies in rural Bangladesh.
Figure 1. Distribution of the Asian small-clawed otter (Aonyx cinerea).
Conservation Priorities
Legal protection and conservation programs for wetlands and other threatened habitats and species need to be developed. Specifically, the existing Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) Act of 1973 needs to be updated and enforced.
Complete surveys of otter habitats need to be continued to identify key potential areas for otter and wetland conservation efforts.
Key wetland areas should be declared as otter sanctuaries.
Environmental and other factors should be surveyed to determine the cause of otter declines.
People should be encouraged in social forestry. This will enable people to meet their fuelwood needs without removing the vegetation cover around the bodies of water.
Awareness among the local people about the conservation of these species should be pursued through a publicity campaign.
A well-considered captive breeding, public display, and possible future reintroduction program should be started.
A study should be made of the fishing communities that use trained otters and a cooperative society should be developed for the education and training of these fishermen in otter conservation.
The Asian small-clawed otter, the Eurasian otter, and the smooth otter historically occurred in Bhutan, but no current information is available.
The Asian small-clawed otter, the smooth otter, and the hairynosed otter historically occurred in Brunei, but no current information is available.
The Asian small-clawed otter, the smooth otter, and the Eurasian otter historically occurred in Burma. Salter (1982) considered the smooth otter to be widely distributed, but no other current information is available. The extensive wetlands in this country are likely to represent important otter habitat.
The Asian small-clawed otter, the smooth otter, the hairy-nosed otter and the Eurasian otter historically occurred in Cambodia but no current information is available. The extensive Tonle Sap wetlands are likely to be important otter habitat.
Species Present
Asian small-clawed otter, smooth otter, Eurasian otter
Status and Distribution
The populations of all otters in China are declining, a fact reinforced by the declining numbers of otter furs traded in recent years.
The Asian small-clawed otter is mainly distributed in Yunnan, Guangdong (including Hainan island), Guangxi, and Fujian Provinces.
The smooth otter is currently only found in southwestern Yunnan province and the coastal area of Guangdong Province (Zhongshan County and Taishan County.)
The Eurasian otter is found throughout China from the northern regions, where it occurs alone, to the southern provinces, where it is sympatric with the Asian small-clawed otter and the smooth otter.
Legal Status
The Eurasian otter and the Asian small-clawed otter were listed in the protected animal list (class II) by the Commission for Environmental Protection, the State Council in July 1987.
Threats
Habitat alteration due to logging and resulting siltation is damaging the streams and wetland habitats of otters.
Large-scale water pollution is causing the loss of fish and contamination of the otters' food sources.
Otters are hunted for their furs, a valuable monetary resource, especially in Guangdong Province, but also in Sichuan, Hunan, Hubei, and Jiangzi Provinces and throughout the otters' range. Under the China Wildlife Act of November 1988, otters cannot be hunted without permission from the provincial department of forestry.
Otters are hunted for their livers, which are thought to have medicinal value.
Conservation Priorities
Overall surveys of otters and their habitats are necessary in order to assess the status of otters, the reasons for their decline, and to identify particular wetlands of importance in their conservation.
The habitat of otters needs protection throughout China.
Existing protected areas that already contain otters need to be more intensively patrolled and scientifically managed. New otter reserves need to be developed and similarly protected.
In-depth studies need to be carried out on the otter species in China.
Public education needs to be initiated and a non-profit, nongovernmental organization needs to be established to protect otters and their habitats.
Species Present
Asian small-clawed otter (?), Eurasian otter (?)
Status and Distribution
The Eurasian otter was formerly present in the northwest New Territories on the shores of Deep Bay. It has been largely absent for the past 30 years apart from a single individual present at the WWF-Hong Kong Mai Po Nature Center during early 1986. The Asian small-clawed otter probably once occurred in Hong Kong, but there are no recent records of its presence.
Legal Status
Otters are fully protected under the Wild Animals Protection Ordinance, Cap. 170. Trade in otters is controlled under the Animals and Plants (Protection of Endangered Species) Ordinance, Cap. 187, which is the enabling legislation for CITES in Hong Kong.
Threats
The otter species probably disappeared from Hong Kong due to hunting for pelts and for livers, which are thought to have medicinal value.
Habitat disturbances, such as the development of housing estates and fish ponds, have reduced available otter habitat.
Increasing problems of industrialization in Hong Kong and the adjacent Shenzhen Special Economic Zone in China are leading to increasing threats of pollution by PCBs and heavy metals.
Conservation Priorities
WWF-Hong Kong is looking into the possibility of reintroducing otters to Hong Kong.
Otters imported from China are no longer sold for food in Hong Kong, but live otters may still be imported into the territory—this should be investigated.
Species Present
Asian small-clawed otter, smooth otter, Eurasian otter
Status and Distribution
All otters in India are becoming increasingly rare outside of national parks and wildlife sanctuaries, and are threatened in many areas due to reduction in prey biomass, poaching, and reduction of habitat. The remaining otters in India are in fragmented populations and are rarely encountered outside the protected areas.
The Asian small-clawed otter is thought to be the rarest otter in India. It is found in the Himalayan foothills from Kulu in Himachal Pradesh eastwards to the northeast hill states; in the plains of Assam and West Bengal; in the higher elevations of hill ranges of Coorg (Kodagu) in Karnataka; in Goa; and in the Nilgiris and the Palni Hills (Tamil Nadu). There have been no recent sightings or captures of this otter in the high ranges of Kerala, however. It is absent over the whole of central India.
The smooth otter is found throughout India from the Himalayas southwards. It is reported in the states of Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Mizoram, West Bengal, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Punjab, and Maharashtra. In most of these states, the otter populations have declined in areas in which they were once quite common outside of the protected areas. There are very good populations in the Periyar and Nagarahole National Parks.
The information on the Eurasian otter in India is vague, but it is known to occur in the foothills of the western Himalayas and in the southern Indian states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and in Goa. In the protected areas in the Terai, and foothills of the Himalayas (for instance in the Dudhwa and Corbett National Parks), there are thriving populations.
Figure 2. Distribution of the smooth otter (Lutra perspicillata).
Legal Status
The Asian small-clawed otter is included in Schedule I, and the Eurasian otter and the smooth otter are included in Schedule II (Part II) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972. All otters are covered under Part A of Schedule I of the Export (Trade) Control Order, 1988. Certain wetlands containing otters have been declared as wildlife sanctuaries and national parks.
Threats
Habitat destruction resulting from reclamation of wetlands for agricultural purposes, deforestation, and the construction of dams and barrages across rivers pose the greatest threats to Indian otters. Decimation of fish fauna due to various factors is also a major cause of declines in populations of otters.
Pollution of waterways with industrial, agricultural, and municipal wastes threatens to contaminate the food chain on which otters depend.
Otters are sometimes killed for their pelts and there is evidence of illegal export via Bangladesh and Nepal to European and other fur markets. It is not clear whether this is a continuing problem. They are also hunted by tribal people for their meat and in Mizoram, male otters are killed for their sexual organs, which are thought to have medicinal value by the Burmese people across the border.
Conservation Priorities
Legal trade in Asian otter pelts should be banned internationally to prevent the smuggling of otter pelts across Indian borders, where they are then exported to the Western World.
More detailed surveys of otters should be conducted throughout India to get a more accurate indication of which species of otters are found in which locations, and their current status.
Effective protected areas should be established wherever possible in areas where otters survive and where there is good potential for the conservation of viable otter populations. In existing wildlife sanctuaries fishing should be carefully regulated (as is currently the case in national parks) to enhance the prey base of the otters. Where protected areas have been established at the edge of reservoirs and rivers, these adjacent bodies of water should also be included in the protected areas to conserve these neighboring otter habitats more efficiently.
Otters should be promoted as the symbol of Indian wetlands, to encourage more public participation in their protection. Public education programs should also be devised to increase awareness of the value of otters and the wetlands they stand for.
More scientific studies are needed on the behavior, ecology, food, and habitat requirements of otters in India.
Species Present
Asian small-clawed otter, smooth otter, Eurasian otter, hairynosed otter
Status and Distribution
The Asian small-clawed otter is found in Java, Sumatra, and Kalimantan, and possibly in the Lesser Sunda Islands. It is reported in the Riau and Lingga archipelagos off Sumatra, and on the island of Sumatra in the Padang-Sugihan Wildlife Reserve (Sumatra Selatan), the Way Kabas Game Reserve (Lampung) and the Lunang peatswamp forests (Sumatra Barat). In Java, it is reported in Muara Bobos (Java Barat), Cilacap/Segara Anakan (Java Tengah) and upstream areas of Cigenter and Cikareng in Ujung Kulon National Park. In Kalimantan, this species is reported along the Upper Kapuas River (Kalimantan Barat), Pleihari (Kalimantan Selatan), and the upper reaches of Sungai Mahakam (Kalimantan Timur).
The smooth otter is found in Sumatra, Java, and Kalimantan. It has recently been reported in Sungai Bahau in East Kalimantan and historical records dating to the turn of the century report it in the environs of Jakarta, on Java. No recent sightings in this location have been confirmed, however.
The Eurasian otter is found only on the island of Sumatra, where it has been recorded in the peatswamp forests of Berbak Game Reserve (Jambi province); in mangroves in the Banyuasin Musi River Delta (Sumatra Selatan); and in freshwater swamp forests and the Way Kanan of the Way Kambas Game Reserve (Lampung).
The hairy-nosed otter is widely distributed in Sumatra, Kalimantan, and Java, where it inhabits freshwater and coastal areas, especially mangroves. In Sumatra it is reported in the Padang-Sugihan Wildlife Reserve (Sumatra Selatan), the Way Kambas Game Reserve (Lampung), Ketambe (Aceh), and on Bangka Island off the Sumatra coast. In Kalimantan it is reported in the Sungai Kapuas and near Pontianak (Kalimantan Barat) and in the upper reaches of the Sungai Barito (Kalimantan Tengah). The hairy-nosed otter is also found along the northwest coast of Ujung Kulon National Park and along the north and south coasts of West Java.
Legal Status
No legal protection.
Threats
Conversion of primary forest into agriculture holdings in the lowlands has destroyed much of the available habitat and necessary cover. Between 65% and 80% of the forests in the lowlands of Sumatra have already been lost.
Extensive embankment of canals and rivers to control flashflooding destroys otter dens and reduces bank vegetation needed for cover.
Heavy use of pesticides in agriculture, the dumping of toxic wastes from factories, and domestic wastes and detergents from human settlements are contaminating many rivers and water systems in Indonesia, causing a severe threat to the entire aquatic food chain, including otters.
The draining of wetlands in Sumatra and Kalimantan for agriculture and human settlement destroys important otter habitats and results in a decline in prey species.
Gravel extraction from river beds in Sumatra destroys otter habitats and increases levels of suspended sediments in the water with resulting deleterious effects on fish.
Conservation Priorities
More scientific studies and data are needed to assess the distribution, numbers, habitat requirements, behavior, and ecology of the otter species in Indonesia.
As a logical follow-up to the IUCN/WWF Wetlands Campaign, the habitat requirements of a number of keystone species, including otters should be assessed, and conservation areas should be established for their protection.
Captive breeding and possible reintroductions into protected areas should be undertaken.
Otters should be given legal protection in Indonesia, although it is known that legal protection alone will not ensure the otters' survival there.
The Eurasian otter is known to occur in Iran, but no recent information is available.
The Eurasian otter and a disjunct population of the smooth otter are known to occur in Iraq, but no current information is available.
Species Present
Eurasian otter
Status and Distribution
Virtually extirpated in the coastal regions. Good populations still exist in the Jordan river catchment, including Lake Tiberias, but because almost the entire population is concentrated in the one system, it must be considered threatened. Within the system, otters occur in uplands, agricultural lowlands, and fish ponds (Macdonald et al. 1986).
Legal status
Protected.
Threats
Gross pollution of rivers (sewage, pesticides) in the coastal plain and potential threat of pollution, mainly from agricultural pesticides, in the Jordan river.
Destruction of riparian habitat for agricultural intensification.
Construction of reservoirs on tributary streams.
Mortality on roads.
Conservation Priorities
Analyses of dead otters and of their food supply for pollutants to assess potential threats to the population in the Jordan catchment.
Reduce levels of pollution in watercourses of the coastal plain.
Species Present
Eurasian otter (?)
Status and Distribution
Although the Eurasian otter was historically found throughout Japan, it is probably nearly extirpated today. In 1986, a dead otter was found in Kouchi Prefecture, but since then no other living or dead otters have been sighted, and their continued existence has been confirmed only through field signs. The number of field signs has been decreasing year by year, but there remains some possibility that a few individuals still exist in southwest Kochi Prefecture.
Legal Status
The Eurasian otter has been protected as a special national natural monument of Japan since 1965.
Threats
The main reason for their decline is water pollution and the destruction of their habitat by industrial development, agricultural chemicals, and synthetic detergents. Water pollution has caused the depletion of their food and may have directly damaged their health.
Otters have been rapidly losing their habitat due to the destruction of shores and banksides, and through the construction of many dams in the mountains.
Otters are considered by fisherman to be competitors. This conflict has undermined conservation efforts.
Hunting for fur (for domestic markets) may still be a problem in the last remaining possible otter habitat, in Kochi Prefecture.
Conservation Priorities
A thorough survey needs to be undertaken in the areas where there is a possibility of the otters' existence, especially in southeast Kochi Prefecture, to assess how many otters remain.
The remaining otter habitat needs to be protected from any disturbances. All industrial development should be banned in this area and the water quality needs to be strictly controlled. Strict laws must be enforced to prohibit hunting or harming any remaining otters.
As depletion of clean fish reserves is thought to be a principal reason for the decline of otters, fish cultivation ponds could be set up within the habitat of the otter.
Captive breeding and reintroduction projects should be seriously considered in Japan.
Public education needs to be carried out to resolve opposition to otter conservation.
Species Present
Eurasian otter
Status and Distribution
Threatened. Restricted to the rivers Jordan, Yarmouk, and Zarka, the only permanent waterways in the Kingdom. No previous information is available on distribution, so it is not known if any change has occurred.
Legal Status
Protected under the Agriculture Act No. 20, 1973 which protects wildlife in general.
Threats
Water pollution; all three river systems are polluted.
Accidental drowning in fishing nets.
Accidental killing in traps set for other species, such as leg traps set for wild boar.
Conservation Priorities
Field survey to determine more precisely the distribution of the species in Jordan.
Tissue analysis of otters found dead for PCBs, pesticides, and metals.
Retention of the dense vegetation present (for security reasons) along the rivers Jordan and Yarmouk.
Species Present
Asian small-clawed otter, smooth otter (?), Eurasian otter
Status and Distribution
Otter populations are small in Laos because of habitat destruction and human encroachment. The smooth otter might occur, but there are no recent records.
The Asian small-clawed otter is found in the central part of the country, especially in Nam Song river, Nam Soung wetland, and Nam Sang and Nam Kading rivers.
The Eurasian otter is found in Nam so, Oudomsay province, in the northern part of the country, and Sekong and Sekhamane, Attapeu province in the southern part of the country.
Legal Status
In the past, Laos did not have any measure to protect otters. During 1988, the Department of Forestry began preparing a law to protect wildlife in the country, and this law is scheduled to be completed shortly, ready for final approval by the national assembly. Based on this law, all otters in Laos will be declared protected animals.
Threats
Habitat destruction due to deforestation along river banks.
People kill otters because of supposed competition for fish.
Lack of protected areas and wildlife law to protect otters.
Conservation Priorities
The highest priority is to establish protected areas in Laos, such as forest reserves and wildlife sanctuaries, including rivers, wetlands, and marshes. If this happens, otters, as well as other wildlife, will have a more secure future.
The new wildlife law needs to be approved and implemented, in order to protect otters and other wildlife in Laos.
The Eurasian otter occurs in adjacent rivers in Israel, so is probably present, but no recent information is available.
Species Present
Asian small-clawed otter, smooth otter, Eurasian otter (?), hairy-nosed otter
Status and Distribution
The Asian small-clawed otter and the smooth otter are relatively common throughout Peninsular Malaysia, while the current existence of the Eurasian otter and the hairy-nosed otter on the peninsula is unconfirmed. In Sabah and Sarawak (East Malaysia), on the island of Borneo, at least three species of otter occur: the hairy-nosed otter, the smooth otter, and the Asian small-clawed otter.
The Asian small-clawed otter is common throughout the rice fields, mangroves, and wetlands of Peninsular Malaysia, with the highest numbers being recorded from the state of Kedah. In East Malaysia, this species is also widely reported from all areas of Sabah and Sarawak.
The smooth otter is common throughout Peninsular Malaysia, inhabiting mangroves, rivers, rice fields, and wetlands throughout the peninsula. The greatest numbers of this otter have been recorded from the state of Kedah. In East Malaysia it appears to be more rare.
The Eurasian otter was recorded by Medway on Langkawi Island off the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia in 1978, but since then no other records of this species have been confirmed anywhere in the country.
The hairy-nosed otter is reported from scattered localities in East Malaysia but has not been recorded from Peninsular Malaysia in recent years. If it still exists in Peninsular Malaysia, it is thought to remain in the rivers at higher altitudes, far from human presence.
Legal Status
All species of otters are totally protected under the Wildlife Enactment 76/72.
Threats
Encroachment by humans into their habitat has resulted in both the Eurasian otter and the hairy-nosed otter becoming rare and possibly disappearing entirely from Peninsular Malaysia. Both the Asian small-clawed otter and the smooth otter appear more able to withstand proximity to humans.
The conversion of estuarine areas into aquaculture and agriculture schemes will reduce the otters' available habitat, if not properly controlled.
Removal of cover from paddyfields will greatly reduce the available sites for otter dens and shelter, especially where these areas border the mangrove feeding grounds for both the Asian small-clawed otter and the smooth otter.
The excessive use of pesticides in paddyfields and agricultural schemes may contaminate the food chain, with deleterious effects on the otter populations.
Otters in paddyfields are often regarded as pests by the farmers, and they are sometimes killed or captured as cubs for pets.
Conservation Priorities
More research is needed on the distribution and status of all the species of otters in Malaysia, with special efforts made to identify remaining populations of the Eurasian otter and the hairy-nosed otter.
An in-depth study of the habitat and ecological requirements of the Asian small-clawed otter and the smooth otter should be initiated, in a location where they are found coexisting and in healthy numbers. This study could be used to formulate more detailed plans for their conservation throughout their ranges, in Malaysia and elsewhere.
Areas known to be preferred otter habitats should be conserved to ensure the continuity of a healthy otter population in Malaysia. In particular, the mangrove forests on the west coast of Malaysia should be preserved, as this is an important habitat for both the smooth otter and the Asian smallclawed otter. If remnant populations of the Eurasian otter and the hairy-nosed otter are found, their remaining habitats should receive the strictest protection.
The use of pesticides should be monitored to determine their effects on the otters and their food species.
There is a need to educate farmers on the role of otters in controlling pests such as rats in their paddyfields. Farmers should also be encouraged to maintain areas of shrubs and dense vegetation around their fields to provide necessary cover for the otters in these areas.
There is a need for stricter compliance with the wildlife protection laws in some areas where otters are found.
Species Present
Eurasian otter
Status and Distribution
Otters exist in very low population densities in three areas (Stubbe et al. 1989): eastern Mongolia in the river system of Chalchin-gol; northern Mongolia in many small rivers belonging to the Jenissei System; and western Mongolia in the upper parts of the river Chod in the High Mongolian Altai.
Legal Status
Otters have been on the Protected Animal List (Class I) since 1930.
Threats
No detailed information though habitat loss may be important.
Conservation Priorities
Otters should be reintroduced to areas where they are absent and where the habitats have not been destroyed and fish and other prey resources are adequate.
Species Present
Asian small-clawed otter (?), smooth otter, Eurasian otter (?)
Status and Distribution
Otters are declining throughout Nepal. Information is vague on the existence and whereabouts of the Eurasian otter and the Asian small-clawed otter in Nepal. The smooth otter appears to remain in isolated populations in the Koshi, Narayani, Karnali, and Mahakali rivers.
Legal Status
Protected under the Aquatic Animal Conservation Act.
Threats
Habitat destruction (including deforestation along waterways), and river pollution threaten the otter population.
Otters in Nepal are still illegally hunted for their pelts, which are made into collars and cuffs of overcoats and ladies' sport coats and trimmings. They are also hunted for their meat and the uterus of females, which is thought to have medicinal value.
Large hydroelectric projects and dams have fragmented the otter populations. In particular, the Narayani, Koshi, Mahakali, and Karnali rivers until twenty years ago were connected with the Ganges river system, but the construction of a dam has isolated these systems. These isolated and fragmented populations of otters are susceptible to the deleterious effects of inbreeding along with other more immediate pressures.
Figure 3. Distribution of the Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra) in Asia.
Conservation Priorities
It is essential to conserve the watershed of Gandaki, Koshi, and Karnali rivers, particularly the riverbank plant communities and aquatic ecosystems, to provide proper habitat for the otters remaining in these areas.
More research is needed on the ecology and behavior of otters in Nepal, including their breeding requirements, the effect of fish swarming on the seasonal migrations of otters, and the vulnerability of otters during flood and drought.
A feasibility study should be carried out to see whether irrigation systems developed near the barrage can support otters and forage fish. If so, diversions of irrigation canal water could be made to create otter havens.
Educational material should be assembled to dispel the myth of the utility of the uterus and meat of the otter as a medicinal substance. Hunting otters for skins should also be discouraged.
The Aquatic Animal Conservation Act of the Nepal Govemment should be enforced.
Species Present
The Eurasian otter probably occurs, but there is no recent information.
Species Present
Smooth otter, Eurasian otter
Status and Distribution
The Eurasian otter was once widely distributed in the rivers and streams of the northern part of the country. The smooth otter occurred over major parts of the Indus Plain and was quite common in the Indus River system in lakes, streams, and canals. Due to various factors, both species have now been confined to water reservoirs and some undisturbed remote areas, as described below.
The smooth otter is common and is found in Bannu and Dera Ismail Khan districts of North West Frontier Province; Mianwali, Muzaffargarh, Rahimyar Khan, and Khanewal districts of Punjab; and Hyderabad and Sukkur districts of Sindh. Its population is mainly restricted to water reservoirs at dams and barrages.
The Eurasian otter is rare and occurs in rivers and streams of Chitral, Dir, Swat, and Mansehra districts of North West
Frontier Province. It also occurs in other northern areas and Azad Kashmir. Its population is restricted to remote areas away from human populations.
Legal Status
Both species are totally protected.
Threats
Construction of barrages has checked the natural flow of water in the rivers. Major parts of the rivers Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, and Sutlaj remain dry during most of the year, bearing no suitable habitat for otters except water reservoirs at dams, barrages, and head works, where permanent water is available.
Overhunting: otters have been excessively harvested in the past, which has been one of the major factors contributing to their decline.
Since otters are considered to be serious pests with regard to fisheries, they are often under extreme persecution by fishermen and owners of fish farms.
Disturbance by human settlement. The ever-increasing human population has eliminated otters from the more disturbed parts of their former ranges and consequently they are now restricted to more remote and undisturbed areas.
Conservation Priorities
Extensive surveys should be conducted to identify key otter habitats, to determine the exact status of otters and to pinpoint causes of their decline.
Key wetland areas should be declared otter sanctuaries.
A publicity campaign is essential for public awareness.
Captive breeding studies should be started.
Species Present
Asian small-clawed otter
Status and Distribution
The Asian small-clawed otter is distributed in rivers, creeks, estuaries, and tidal areas throughout Palawan. It has been sighted most often in Brooke's Point, Narra, Bataraza, and St. Paul's Bay.
Legal Status
Protected by Proclamation No. 219, and amended by Proc. Nos. 1232 and 1440, which declare the whole province of Palawan as a Game Refuge and Bird Sanctuary. Aside from this, the otter has no specific legal protection in Palawan.
Threats
The greatest threat is loss of suitable habitat as a result of shifting cultivation, mining and logging activities, construction of roads and other infrastructure, and increase in human settlements. These disturbances lead to siltation and eutrophication of rivers and coastal areas where the otters feed.
Otters are collected for pets and, possibly, for meat.
Conservation Priorities
A basic research and conservation program is needed to learn more about this otter's status, distribution and ecological requirements on Palawan.
Stricter protection is needed, including the designation of riparian reserves as otter havens.
The Asian small-clawed otter, the smooth otter, and the hairy-nosed otter once probably occurred in Singapore. Nearby Peninsular Malaysia has good populations of the Asian small-clawed otter and smooth otter, but all species of otter in Singapore are now believed to be extirpated.
Species Present
Eurasian otter
Status and Distribution
Endangered. Once found in rivers, lakes, and estuaries throughout the country, except for Chung Nam province, but now rarely occurs anywhere. There are captive specimens in Kumgang Zoo (Busan), the Forestry Research Institute, and Kyeong Hee University (Seoul).
Legal Status
Protected by the Cultural Properties Mangement Law, as a Natural Monument (Number 330). Any person who has illegally captured this species is liable to be sentenced to at least two years in prison.
Threats
No detailed information, though habitat loss is believed to be a severe problem.
Conservation Priorities
Conservation of the natural environment of otters and protection from artificial destruction.
Environmental Impact Assessment studies are needed where water flow is to be altered by large-scale construction of dams and roads.
Research needed for captive breeding efforts.
Species Present
Eurasian otter
Status and Distribution
Otters once were commonly observed throughout Sri Lanka in a variety of habitats including streams, rivers, lakes, lagoons, and paddyfields. Although in smaller numbers now, otters are still found in all the major river systems, from the brackish water estuaries to the headwaters at altitudes over 2,000 m. As the lowland dry zones are receiving increasing human pressures, the mountainous areas may provide the remaining safe havens for otters.
Legal Status
No information available.
Threats
Pesticide pollution of the waterways is a potential threat to otters in Sri Lanka, although much rice is still cultivated using traditional methods instead of a heavy reliance on chemical fertilizers and pesticides.
Massive hydroelectric schemes, such as the Accelerated Mahaweli Development Project, divert rivers and greatly reduce riparian habitat necessary for otter survival.
Over-cutting of lowland forests, with a decline in forest cover from 2.9 million hectares in 1965 to 1.6 million hectares in 1981, is also reducing available riparian habitat for otters.
Overexploitation of mangroves for fuel, food, and fiber, and the conversion of mangrove land to coconut and cinnamon plantations, housing schemes, and tourist hotels greatly reduces the amount of this rich habitat available to otters.
Conservation Priorities
Strict controls are needed on the amount of deforestation and chemical contamination of river systems in Sri Lanka.
Surveys need to be carried out throughout Sri Lanka to determine the whereabouts of viable populations.
Areas of sufficient remoteness, difficulty of terrain, and density of cover to provide natural protection from people should be preserved as otter havens.
More scientific studies need to be carried out on the behavior and ecology of the otters in Sri Lanka before serious environmental problems threaten their survival.
The Eurasian otter occurs in adjacent rivers in Israel and Jordan, so it is probably present in Syria, but no recent information is available.
The Eurasian otter once occurred in Taiwan, but no current information is available.
Species Present
Asian small-clawed otter, smooth otter, Eurasian otter (?), hairy-nosed otter (?)
Status and Distribution
All otters in Thailand are severely threatened due to habitat destruction, pollution of waterways, and human encroachment. Two species, the Eurasian otter and the hairy-nosed otter, may already have disappeared from Thailand.
The Asian small-clawed otter is still found in many wildlife sanctuaries and national parks in Thailand, where it frequents streams, rivers, marshy wetlands, and the sea coasts. Outstanding numbers are found in the western forested areas and in the marshy wetlands in southern Thailand, including Nung Tung Tong Reserve and Pattani and Songkla Provinces.
The smooth otter still occurs in the Huay Kha Khaeng Reserve in western Thailand; in the Tapi River, Phru-Toa-Dang Peat Swamp Forest, Bang Lan Dam and Ao Phangnga National Park in the south; and in the Mun River in the northeast.
Legal Status
All four otter species were officially declared protected wild animals of the first category by the Ministerial Regulation No. 10 in 1975, in accordance with the Wild Animals Reservation and Protection Act B.E. 2503 (1960). According to this act, no persons shall kill protected wild animals of the first category except for educational purposes or scientific research. Trading of otter skins and carcasses is also prohibited by law.
Threats
Municipal, agricultural, and industrial wastes in most waterways throughout Thailand have severely threatened the otter populations.
Habitat destruction, including logging and hydroelectric projects which alter river systems, have reduced the habitat available to otters. The hydroelectric dams replace natural rivers with steep-sided reservoirs devoid of surrounding cover and thus unsuitable for otter habitation. The changing of mangrove forest into shrimp and fish aquaculture projects also diminishes otter habitats and puts otters in more direct competition with man.
Competition with people for fish supplies has resulted in direct killing of otters in areas where they would otherwise occur.
Insufficient enforcement of existing wildlife laws and reserved areas provide little more than “paper” protection for otters and their remaining habitats.
Conservation Priorities
A complete survey of otters and their remaining habitats needs to be initiated quickly to pinpoint areas of critical concern for each otter species. Efforts should be made to determine areas where small pockets of the Eurasian otter and the hairy-nosed otter might still occur.
Habitats that still contain otter populations should be declared “otter reserves” and legal action should be taken to protect these areas. Existing protected areas also need to be more closely monitored and protected.
Public education programs should be initiated to develop awareness of the importance of conservation of otters and other wetland inhabitants and of a clean environment in general.
Reintroduction programs should not be considered at this time; efforts should focus instead on protecting the habitats of the remaining otters in Thailand. Only if and when the overall pollution problems are solved, can otters be reintroduced into areas where they now no longer occur.
Species Present
Eurasian otter
Status and Distribution
No systematic observations. Said by Turan (1984) to have a wide distribution, occuring in most rivers and lakes around the Black Sea and some rivers draining the Aegean Sea. Also known from the European part of Turkey.
Legal Status
No information available.
Threats
Threats may be the intensification of agriculture in the lowlands, the building of irrigation canals, and the draining of some wetlands.
Figure 4. Distribution of the hairy-nosed otter (Lutra sumatrana).
Conservation Priorities
A full field survey of this country, with its many important wetlands, is urgently required.
Species Present
Asian small-clawed otter (?), smooth otter (?), Eurasian otter (?), hairy-nosed otter (?)
Status and Distribution
Otters are widely distributed in Vietnam, from the south to the north, in a variety of habitats including rivers, streams, swamps, lakes in the highlands, deltas, and along seashores and nearshore islands. There are old records of all four Asian species, but there is great uncertainty about the current status of any of them. Although it is known that otters still occur in reasonable numbers, their specific identity needs to be clarified.
Legal Status
No information available.
Threats
Habitat destruction due to increasing human settlements along rivers in Vietnam.
Conservation Priorities
An accurate survey and scientific investigation of the ecological and biological characteristics of otters in Vietnam is necessary as an initial conservation effort. The existence of all four species requires confirmation.