10. Action Plan for African Otters
D.T. Rowe-Rowe
Four otter species occur in Africa. The Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra) occurs only in the rivers rising in the Atlas mountains. Three species are endemic to Africa: The Cape clawless otter (Aonyx capensis), the Congo clawless otter (Aonyx congica), and the spotted-necked otter (Lutra maculicollis). Throughout the high rainfall regions (i.e. within the 500 mm isohyet) of sub-Saharan Africa at least one of these species, often more, can be expected to be present. Otters are absent from only six countries on the African continent: Djibouti, Egypt, Libya, Mauritania, Somalia, and Western Sahara. With the exception of Egypt, these counties probably do not have sufficient permanent water for otters.
In most of the countries, within the ranges of the four otter species, the greatest threat to the existence of the animals has been identified as the rapidly increasing human population. This leads to drastic habitat alteration or loss of habitat following increased agricultural activity, unsound agricultural practices, overgrazing, or lack of natural resource conservation. The mean annual human population growth rate of the countries in which otters occur is 2.9%, which represents a doubling time of 25 years.
In this chapter nomenclature follows Meester et al. (1986). Status is rated as very rare, rare, fairly common, or common. Data on human populations were obtained from Coulombe (1982) and Willett (1987). Otters occur in 41 African countries, and each of these is discussed in the country accounts below. Information was collected by contacting nature conservationists and biologists in countries throughout the distributional ranges of the three sub-Saharan otters. Addresses of environmental protection agencies were obtained from IUCN/UNEP (1987). Data on the Eurasian otter were provided by C.F. Mason in litt.
The Cape clawless otter is distributed from South Africa northwards to Ethiopia in the east and Senegal in the west, but is absent from the central rain-forest area of the Congo Basin (see Figure 1). Throughout its range it occurs in rivers and lakes, and all streams and swamps in which there is sufficient water to support crabs, frogs, and catfish or mudfish. Aspects of the Cape clawless otter's ecology and behavior have been studied in some detail in South Africa (Rowe-Rowe 1977a, b, c; van der Zee 1981, 1982; Arden-Clarke 1986). Conclusions drawn from these studies were that the Cape clawless otter has evolved primarily as a feeder on crabs in freshwater habitats, where the diet is supplemented with frogs and fish. At some coastal localities this otter obtains food in the sea, taking mainly crustaceans and molluscs.
Cape clawless otter (Aonyx capensis) in South Africa (Photo by David Rowe-Rowe).
The Congo clawless otter occurs in the rain-forest habitats of the Congo River basin, extending eastward to the forests and wetland areas of Rwanda, Burundi, and Uganda (see Figure 2). No ecological studies have been carried out on this species. Kingdon (1977) suggested that the Congo clawless otter is dependent on “worms, insects, molluscs, crustaceans, and amphibians” in “montane marshes and lowland swamp forests”.
The spotted-necked otter occurs throughout most of Africa south of 10° N. It is absent from the eastern half of Tanzania, Zimbabwe, all but the extreme northern portions of Botswana and Namibia, and the western half of South Africa (see Figure 3). Information on the ecology and behavior of the spotted-necked otter is contained in publications by Mortimer (1963), Procter (1963), (Rowe-Rowe 1977a, b), and in recent reports by (Lejeune 1989, in press a, b). The spotted-necked otter coexists with the Cape clawless otter over most of its range, and the Congo clawless otter elsewhere. The spotted-necked otter is better adapted for the capture of fish than are the two clawless otter species, and is therefore more dependent on permanent, clear water.
Spotted-necked otter (Lutra maculicollis) in South Africa (Photo by Dave Rowe-Rowe)
The Eurasian otter in Africa is limited in distribution to the Maghreb (see Figure 4). Otters are not found in Egypt, despite the country being traversed by the River Nile with its extensive marshes and delta. The North African population is centered on the rivers rising in the Atlas Mountains. There have been no ecological studies of otters in the region, but field surveys have plotted the distribution of the species, though some areas remain to be surveyed. In this heavily grazed region, bankside vegetation is of particular importance to otters. The plant Nerium oleander, which is associated with streams and is poisonous to livestock, forms dense riparian thickets which provide shelter for otters, especially in the rivers of north Tunisia.
Species Present
Eurasian otter
Status and Distribution
The Eurasian otter is very localized. Present in Kabylie, particularly in the upper reaches of the Oued Sebaou catchment, but indications are that the population is low (Macdonald et al. 1985). Locally present in the western coastal hills, where it is contiguous with the Moroccan population, and also present in the northeast of the country, for example around El Kala, where populations are contiguous with those of Tunisia (K. de Smet, pers. comm).
Legal Status
Protected.
Threats
Gross pollution of many rivers, especially from domestic and industrial sources, with much industry being sited in small towns providing few facilities for pollution control. Agriculture is being extended and pollution from pesticides is likely. All water resources are threatened.
In many areas, riparian vegetation is largely absent, and there is much erosion of river banks.
Conservation Priorities
A complete field survey of the country is necessary to determine distribution more accurately, assess threats, and locate areas where conservation measures would be most effective.
Protection of wetland at El Kala and the rivers of Kabylie.
The control of pollution, especially in rural, upland areas where viable otter populations are most likely to occur. In particular, installation of sewage systems in villages of the Sebaou catchment.
Species Present
Cape clawless otter, Congo clawless otter, spotted-necked otter
Status and Distribution
The Cape clawless otter is rare, occurring in the southwest and apparently absent from eastern Angola (Crawford-Cabral 1989). The Congo clawless otter is rare, being limited to the tributaries of the Cuango and Casai Rivers (Crawford-Cabral 1989). The spotted-necked otter is fairly common, possibly occurring in all major rivers (Crawford-Cabral 1989).
Legal Status
No recent information.
Threats
Otters are killed, but the degree of exploitation is not known.
Conservation Priorities
The country's government departments are being reorganized following 14 years of civil war. Immediate priorities are the reinstatement of national park management and law enforcement.
Species Present
Cape clawless otter, spotted-necked otter
Status and Distribution
The Cape clawless otter is rare and declining in some parts of the country. The spotted-necked otter is rare to very rare.
Legal Status
Protected in National Parks.
Threats
High human population density of >35/km2 and rapid annual rate of population increase (2.8%).
Increasing demand for more agricultural land.
Overhunting and overfishing of all indigenous fauna.
Conservation Priorities
Programs on the conservation of agricultural resources and natural resources are required.
Species Present
Cape clawless otter, spotted-necked otter
Status and Distribution
Both the Cape clawless otter and the spotted-necked otter are rare, but as abundant as can be expected. They occur only in the Okavango Swamps and Chobe River, the rest of the country being arid to semi-arid.
Legal Status
Fully protected.
Threats
At present there are no major threats. Efforts to create faster water flow by ‘channel improvement’ could have effects on aquatic fauna in the Okavango Swamps, as would any attempts at draining the swamps.
Conservation Priorities
Sound management of the wetland areas (Okavango and Chobe), and strict control of their use by humans for tourism and pastoral reasons.
Species Present
Cape clawless otter, spotted-necked otter
Status and Distribution
The Cape clawless otter is rare and probably declining. The spotted-necked otter is very rare. Both species are limited to the moister south and southeast of the country, and there is very little recent information.
Legal Status
Protected in National Parks. No recent information on legal status outside protected areas.
Threats
Human and agricultural expansion.
Overhunting and overfishing.
Conservation Priorities
A field survey needs to be carried out and suitable areas for otter conservation identified. There is a shortage of staff and funds.
Species Present
Congo clawless otter, spotted-necked otter
Status and Distribution
The Congo clawless otter and the spotted-necked otter possibly still occur (Coetzee 1971; Meester et al. 1986), but there is no recent information on status.
Legal Status
Unprotected.
Threats
No recent information.
Conservation Priorities
A survey is needed to assess the status and conservation needs of otters in Burundi.
Species Present
Congo clawless otter, spotted-necked otter
Status and Distribution
The Congo clawless otter is very rare and the spotted-necked otter is rare.
Legal Status
No recent information.
Threats
No recent information.
Conservation Priorities
More information on the status and distribution of otters is needed.
Species Present
Cape clawless otter, Congo clawless otter, spotted-necked otter
Status and Distribution
The Congo clawless otter is locally fairly common in the dense lowland rain-forest region in the southwest, where the spotted-necked otter is also fairly common. Elsewhere both the Cape clawless otter and the spotted-necked otter are very rare. The rivers have sterile, sandy beds and do not support much aquatic life.
Legal Status
Otters are fully protected in nature reserves and may not be hunted outside reserves, unless accidentally caught in fish traps or nets.
Threats
No major threats. Otters are killed opportunistically for food, or caught in fish traps or nets.
Conservation Priorities
A field survey to determine the status and ecology of otters, particularly the Congo clawless otter, is necessary.
Conservation of the lowland rain-forest region in the southwest, including carefully planned sustainable use of forest products.
Figure 1. Distribution of the Cape clawless otter (Aonyx capensis).
Species Present
Cape clawless otter, spotted-necked otter
Status and Distribution
The Cape clawless otter and the spotted-necked otter occur only in the vicinity of Lake Chad, where they are locally rare to fairly common.
Legal Status
Otters do not occur in any of the country's national parks. Outside of parks they are offered legal protection in terms of the nature conservation ordinance.
Threats
Drying-up of Lake Chad.
Declines in food resources.
Hunting.
Conservation Priorities
Enforcement of the hunting and nature conservation ordinance.
Protection of some otter habitats.
Assist the people around Lake Chad to use natural resources wisely and to avoid overexploitation.
Species Present
Congo clawless otter, spotted-necked otter
Status and Distribution
The Congo clawless otter is rare, inhabiting small streams in dense forest. Locally fairly common in the Likouala and Cuvette regions. The spotted-necked otter is fairly common in Lake Tele (Likouala region). Its status is not known in the rest of the country.
Legal Status
Otters are protected in certain parks and faunal reserves, depending on the status of the protected area.
Threats
No serious threats have been identified. Some otters are caught in fish nets or fish traps. Otters are also killed as they are regarded as competitors for food, or because they damage fish traps and nets.
Conservation Priorities
More information is needed on the distribution and status of otters, and on the ecology of the Congo clawless otter.
Equatorial Guinea
The Congo clawless otter and the spotted-necked otter presumably both occur, but there is no recent information.
Species Present
Cape clawless otter, spotted-necked otter
Status and Distribution
Both the Cape clawless otter and the spotted-necked otter are apparently very rare.
Legal Status
Protected in at least one national park. Also protected outside protected areas.
Threats
The dense human population (>30/km) which continues to increase at approximately 2.6% per annum has been responsible for some environmental changes and degradation which adversely affect otter habitats. Other habitat modifications, such as the construction of large dams and many small hydroelectric schemes, are likely to be beneficial to otters.
Some otters are killed and the skins sold on local markets.
Conservation Priorities
More accurate information on the status and distribution of otters is required.
Information on the condition of wetland habitats in major national parks (e.g. Awash and Bale Mountains Park) is required before predictions on the future for otters can be made.
Species Present
Congo clawless otter, spotted-necked otter
Status and Distribution
The Congo clawless otter is rare to fairly common, depending on habitat suitability. The spotted-necked otter is rare.
Legal Status
Apparently protected in conservation areas but unprotected elsewhere.
Threats
No serious threats but reports of decreases in otter numbers in rivers which are heavily fished and where all game is hunted.
Conservation Priorities
Acquire information on the ecology and habitat requirements of the Congo clawless otter.
The Cape clawless otter presumably occurs, but there is no recent information.
Species Present
Cape clawless otter, spotted-necked otter
Status and Distribution
The Cape clawless otter is very rare. The status of the spotted-necked otter is unclear, and it is not certain whether it is still present.
Legal Status
Protected in national parks and reserves.
Threats
The human population density is very high (>60/km2) with an annual growth rate of 3.6%. Consequently, there is increasing pressure on the land to produce more food and raise more livestock. Habitats for wildlife are being lost or altered and wild animals forced out or exploited.
Figure 2. Distribution of the Congo clawless otter (Aonyx congica).
Conservation Priorities
Determine the status of otters in protected areas and identify factors which will ensure their continued existence in these areas.
Species Present
Cape clawless otter
Status and Distribution
The Cape clawless otter is locally fairly common in suitable habitat.
Legal Status
Special authority is needed to hunt otters. They are fully protected in strict nature reserves and national parks.
Threats
The mismanagement of natural resources, particularly gallery forest.
Some otters are illegally killed for meat.
Other threats may be identified if more detailed studies of the country's fauna and habitats are undertaken (see below).
Conservation Priorities
Surveys should be carried out to determine the distribution and status of otters, and to identify important habitats with viable populations.
Improve resource management, and the protection of wetlands and other otter habitats.
Laws protecting fauna and flora need to be more strictly applied.
New approaches are needed to make people more aware of the importance of habitat conservation.
Species Present
Cape clawless otter
Status and Distribution
The Cape clawless otter is rare.
Legal Status
Unprotected.
Threats
There are currently no protected areas for wildlife, but a number of controlled hunting areas exist. Otters are not specifically hunted in these areas.
Some traditional hunting of otters takes place and the skins are sold in the capital.
Agricultural development, especially the cultivation of rice, is responsible for loss of habitat and habitat changes.
Conservation Priorities
The creation of protected areas for wildlife.
Better law enforcement.
Species Present
Cape clawless otter, spotted-necked otter
Status Distribution
The Cape clawless otter is rare. The status of the spotted-necked otter is not known. Earlier distribution records referred to its occurrence (Meester et al. 1986), and it has recently been recorded in Tai National Park.
Legal Status
The Cape clawless otter and spotted-necked otter occur in at least one national park and are also protected outside parks.
Threats
The country has a fairly dense human population (33/km) which is increasing at 4.3% per annum.
Major threats to otters emanate from loss of habitat and deforestation.
Conservation Priorities
The implementation of forest conservation measures and better land management throughout the country generally.
Improved enforcement of the hunting laws.
Species Present
Cape clawless otter, spotted-necked otter
Status and Distribution
The Cape clawless otter is fairly common in suitable habitats. The spotted-necked otter is rare, but locally fairly common on the shores of Lake Victoria.
Legal Status
Fully protected: a license is required to capture or kill otters.
Threats
The human population of c. 35/km2 has an annual growth rate of 3.5%. Wetland areas are being cleared and drained for agriculture.
Rural populations are increasing with consequent effects on riparian vegetation and stream quality.
Streamflow in hilly areas is not as regular as formerly, owing to deforestation. This could have an indirect effect on the Cape clawless otter.
The spotted-necked otter is being affected mainly by increased human activity on the lake shores.
Conservation Priorities
Educational programs to promote family planning and sound agricultural practices.
The identification of sufficient suitable wetland areas within national parks or outside of them, to ensure the future of otters in Kenya.
Catchment protection by enforcing the laws within forest National Parks (especially against logging).
The future of the spotted-necked otter depends largely on the prevention of further interference on the shores of Lake Victoria. There needs to be cooperation between Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania on the conservation of this species. Tanzania has a very important population in Rubondo Island National park in Lake Victoria.
Species Present
Cape clawless otter, spotted-necked otter
Status and Distribution
The Cape clawless otter is very rare and declining. The spotted-necked otter is possibly extirpated.
Legal Status
Protected only in the country's single national park.
Threats
The high human population density (c. 50/km2) and high annual growth rate of 2.5% have led to:
Severe siltation of streams following overgrazing and agriculture.
Increased hunting pressure on all animals.
Conservation Priorities
Implementation of catchment conservation measures. Some are currently planned.
Species Present
Cape clawless otter, spotted-necked otter
Status and Distribution
Both the Cape clawless otter and the spotted-necked otter are fairly common in Sapo National Park. Elsewhere in the country they are locally rare to fairly common.
Legal Status
Otters are fully protected in the country's single national park and partially protected elsewhere.
Threats
The human population which has a density of 20/km2 increasing at 3.4% annually.
Loss of primary forest and silting of streams.
Pollution of St. John River from iron ore extraction.
Some otters are killed for meat or skins. Hunting pressure ranges from moderate to intense in a few areas.
Conservation Priorities
A nationwide mammal and hunting survey (currently being undertaken).
Public awareness campaigns and education programmes in habitat protection.
Staff development programs, increased public involvement, and enforcement of wildlife regulations.
Species Present
Cape clawless otter, spotted-necked otter
Status and Distribution
The Cape clawless otter is fairly common in wetland areas and streams. The spotted-necked otter is common in Lake Malawi, and fairly common in major rivers.
Legal Status
Fully protected.
Threats
Malawi has a dense human population (c. 60/km2) which has a high annual growth rate of 2.9%.
Agricultural expansion in rural areas with loss of wetland habitats and pollution of streams, and increased human settlement on the shores of Lake Malawi.
Although protected, otters are killed opportunistically and the skins are sold. Some are caught in fish traps and nets.
Increase in tourism, number of motorized boats, and activity on the lake.
Conservation Priorities
The identification of some wetland areas (marshes, swamps, and associated streams) which should remain undisturbed.
Education in family planning, soil conservation, and sustainable agriculture.
The Cape clawless otter and the spotted-necked otter have been recorded, but there is no recent information on their status.
Species Present
Eurasian otter
Status and Distribution
The Eurasian otter is widespread in rivers of the foothills of the Moyen Atlas, but rather scarce in the lowlands where populations are becoming fragmented. The species also exists on the Saharan side of the Atlas where rivers run into the desert (Macdonald and Mason 1984; Broyer et al. 1984; Aulagnier 1985.)
Spotted-necked otter (Lutra maculicollis) (Photo courtesy of the Chicago Zoological Society).
Legal Status
No recent information.
Threats
Construction of dams and abstraction of water for irrigation, leaving many river beds dry.
Removal of bankside vegetation for fuel and by overgrazing.
Pollution with pesticides may be important in lowland areas of intensive agriculture.
Conservation Priorities
Systematic field survey of whole country to determine distribution more accurately, assess threats, and locate populations requiring particular conservation strategies.
Species Present
Cape clawless otter, spotted-necked otter
Status and Distribution
The Cape clawless otter is possibly fairly common in streams and wetland areas. The spotted-necked otter is very rare.
Legal Status
Protected in four national parks and five reserves. Hunting outside reserves is controlled by legislation.
Threats
Otters are killed for meat and their skins, but the extent of killing is not known.
Lack of law enforcement owing to staff shortage, and inaccessibility of many areas because of the security situation.
Agriculture on river banks appears to be a significant threat.
Conservation Priorities
An assessment of the current status of otters. At present conservation priority is given to economically important or vulnerable large mammals. The conservation significance of otters is not recognized.
The identification of threats to the existence of otters, and the promotion of conservation awareness with particular emphasis on habitat conservation.
Species Present
Cape clawless otter, spotted-necked otter
Status and Distribution
The Cape clawless otter is very rare and occurs only in the Okavango and Kunene rivers on the northern border. The spotted-necked otter is very rare in the Kunene and slightly more abundant in the Okavango river.
Legal Status
Protected.
Figure 3. Distribution of the spotted-necked otter (Lutra maculicollis).
Threats
Very little is known about otters in these two rivers, which form international borders in what has been an area of military activity.
Conservation Priorities
Determine the status of otters in the Okavango and Kunene rivers.
Identify any threats.
Species Present
Cape clawless otter, spotted-necked otter
Status and Distribution
The Cape clawless otter is very rare and occurs only in the south of the country. The spotted-necked otter has not been reported in recent years, though Coetzee (1971) referred to distribution records of this species in the south.
Legal Status
Total protection is afforded.
Threats
Alteration of habitats and habitat destruction.
Conservation Priorities
Inventory of remaining otter refuges.
Increased public awareness and involvement in environmental conservation.
More staff and equipment, and improved law enforcement.
Species Present
Cape clawless otter, Congo clawless otter, spotted-necked otter
Status and Distribution
Both the Cape clawless otter and the spotted-necked otter are very rare, and possibly declining. The Congo clawless otter has been reported from Cross River State (in the southeast of the country), but its current status is not known.
Legal Status
Protected.
Threats
Nigeria has a very high human population density of c. 100/km2 with an annual growth rate of 3.2%.
Otter numbers and their distributional range have declined following loss of habitat and habitat changes owing to human expansion.
Deliberate and widespread poisoning of riverine fish with natural and synthetic toxins.
Conservation Priorities
Determine the status of otters in the country's nature reserves and identify issues which might affect their survival in these areas.
Species Present
Cape clawless otter, Congo clawless otter, spotted-necked otter
Status and Distribution
The Cape clawless otter is very rare, occurring mainly in marshes. The Congo clawless otter is rare, occurring around some lakes and along certain rivers, as well as wetland areas at Nyungwe. The spotted-necked otter is common in Lake Muhazi, and fairly common in Lakes Kivu, Bulera, and Luhondo.
Legal Status
Otters are protected in two national parks, but not elsewhere.
Threats
Loss of habitat owing to a high human population density (c. 180/km2) with an annual growth rate of 2.4%. There is also some traditional hunting.
Conservation Priorities
A survey is needed of all otter species to assess their conservation requirements.
Species Present
Cape clawless otter
Status and Distribution
The Cape clawless otter is fairly common.
Legal Status
Protected.
Threats
No major threats known at present. The construction of dams might affect stream flow and flood mangroves, but could also provide additional habitat for otters.
Conservation Priorities
A study is needed in the south of the country to gain a better understanding of the ecology of the Cape clawless otter in Senegal, and to provide guidelines for conservation measures.
Species Present
Cape clawless otter, spotted-necked otter
Status and Distribution
The Cape clawless otter is rare. The spotted-necked otter is very rare.
Legal Status
Protected in nature reserves. Exploitation is controlled by hunting regulations outside of reserves.
Threats
The human population density of c. 55/km2 has an annual growth rate of 2.6%.
Natural vegetation is being cleared for agriculture, consequently affecting water quality and aquatic life.
Increased human activity on rivers and lakes, including poisoning of fish.
Conservation Priorities
A field survey to establish the current status and distribution of otters.
Better protection of otters, and conservation management of suitable habitats.
Figure 4. Distribution of the Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra) in Africa.
Species Present
Cape clawless otter, spotted-necked otter
Status and Distribution
The Cape clawless otter is fairly common and occurs throughout the eastern half of the country and along the southern coast. The spotted-necked otter is rare and occurs in permanent inland waters in the eastern half of the country.
Legal Status
Protected in the 151 national parks and game or nature reserves in which they occur. Outside of reserves skins or live animals may not be sold.
Threats
Increasing rural human population (growth rate of 2.8%) with agricultural expansion and over-grazing by livestock in some areas.
Siltation of streams where soil and water conservation are not practiced.
Urban expansion with pollution of streams and rivers in the vicinity of towns.
Conservation Priorities
Increased efforts in campaigns to promote family planning.
Increased efforts to educate rural people in soil and water conservation, reduction in livestock, grassland management, and sound agricultural practices.
Species Present
Cape clawless otter, spotted-necked otter
Status and Distribution
The current status of the Cape clawless otter is not known, though it was previously recorded in southern Sudan (Meester et al. 1986). The spotted-necked otter is rare.
Legal Status
Otters are protected in national parks and areas outside reserves.
Threats
No major threats identified. Some otters are accidentally caught in fish nets.
Conservation Priorities
A survey is needed to identify conservation needs.
Species Present
Cape clawless otter, spotted-necked otter
Status and Distribution
The Cape clawless otter is widely distributed, but rare. The spotted-necked otter is rare.
Legal Status
Otters are protected in the country's five game reserves, where their status is secure. Outside of reserves they are not protected.
Threats
The dense human population (40/km2) is increasing at 3.3% per annum, with consequent over-grazing by livestock, soil erosion, and siltation of streams.
Some otters are hunted and killed opportunistically. Associated with the increasing human population is an everincreasing number of dogs which hunt and disturb wildlife.
Aquatic pollution stemming from paper-pulp milling and mining.
Conservation Priorities
The promotion of sound agricultural practices, and soil and water conservation. A National Environment Education Programme is currently in operation and working towards conservation awareness.
Controls on the discharge of effluent into streams need to be implemented.
Species Present
Cape clawless otter, spotted-necked otter
Status and Distribution
The Cape clawless otter is fairly common where there is suitable habitat in rivers and streams. The spotted-necked otter is fairly common on the shores of Lakes Victoria, Tanganyika, Malawi, and Rukwa, but very rare or absent from the rest of the country.
Legal Status
Protected in national parks. May not be hunted or captured without a permit outside of parks.
Threats
Expansion of human population, damage to wetland sponges, and draining of swamps.
Disturbance of the lake shores by increasing human settlements and their domestic animals, including dogs.
Intensive fishing, the accidental capture of the spotted-necked otter in fish nets, and the disruption of indigenous fish communities (e.g. by the introduction of Nile perch).
In hilly areas deforestation or other disturbances on slopes has been detrimental to streamflow, and will have an indirect effect on the Cape clawless otter.
Conservation Priorities
Wetland conservation.
Catchment protection, particularly the enforcement of laws governing deforestation, to ensure a constant flow of clean water.
The protection of the lake shore habitats from further interference. Ideally more lake parks (like the existing Rubondo Island and Gombe Stream National Parks) are needed to protect both the shores and the open water used by the spotted-necked otter.
Spotted-necked otter (Lutra maculicollis) (Photo courtesy of the Chicago Zoological Society).
Species Present
Cape clawless otter, spotted-necked otter
Status and Distribution
The Cape clawless otter and the spotted-necked otter have been recorded in the country (Coetzee 1971; Meester et al. 1986), and are believed still to occur, but there is no recent information on status.
Legal Status
Otters are protected throughout the country and laws are strictly enforced.
Threats
The country is densely populated (>50/km2) and many natural habitats have been lost or altered.
The spraying of insecticides on riverine vegetation may have adverse effects on aquatic organisms.
Conservation Priorities
Information on the distribution and status of otters, as well as their habitats, is required.
A country-wide fish survey is planned, with the aim of developing a plan for the wise use of indigenous fish.
Species Present
Eurasian otter
Status and Distribution
The Eurasian otter is largely restricted to the area west of Tunis and north of the Oued Medjerda, but in this area it appears widespread and locally common. Lake Ichkeul and its feeder rivers are of particular importance. An isolated population is present to the south and east of this region (Macdonald and Mason 1983b).
Legal Status
Protected.
Threats
Dams for irrigation, particularly on those rivers flowing into Lake Ichkeul.
Increased irrigation and hence agricultural productivity may lead to increased use of pesticides.
Conservation Priorities
A more intensive survey of the country to assess distribution and assess potential threats more accurately.
Ecological study on Lake Ichkeul and its rivers, including determination of diet and use by otters of the catchment, so that the potential effects of ecological changes caused by damming of affluent rivers can be assessed.
Species Present
Cape clawless otter, Congo clawless otter, spotted-necked otter
Status and Distribution
The Cape clawless otter is rare. The Congo clawless otter is rare, occurring only in the west of the country. The spotted-necked otter is fairly common, for instance in Lakes Bunyeni and Kigezi, though rare in the Ugandan portion of Lake Victoria. It occurs also in larger permanent rivers.
Legal Status
Protected in three national parks, but unprotected elsewhere.
Threats
A dense human population (c. 70/km2) which is rapidly expanding (3.4% per annum), and continually requires more land for agriculture and livestock.
The draining of swamps and natural wetland sponges.
Conservation Priorities
Programs to encourage family planning and to promote conservation of soil, water and wetlands.
Species Present
Cape clawless otter, Congo clawless otter, spotted-necked otter
Status and Distribution
The Cape clawless otter is fairly common in the Lualaba River area in Katanga. The Congo clawless otter is fairly common in lowland and rain forest rivers. The spotted-necked otter is common along rivers, mainly in forest areas and around Lakes Edward, Kivu, and Tanganyika.
Legal Status
Protected in national parks. A permit is needed to hunt otters outside of parks.
Threats
More information is needed.
Conservation Priorities
A detailed field study on the Congo clawless otter needs to be undertaken, concentrating on diet and habitat requirements.
Species Present
Cape clawless otter, spotted-necked otter
Status and Distribution
The Cape clawless otter is fairly common. The spotted-necked otter is fairly common in the west, but very rare or absent in the east.
Legal Status
The Cape clawless otter is protected in eight national parks where they definitely occur. They are possibly present in another eight parks. The spotted-necked otter is protected in four national parks where they definitely occur, and in another nine where they possibly occur. A licence is needed to hunt otters outside of national parks.
Threats
No major threats known. Very limited hunting for skins.
Conservation Priorities
None so far identified, other than a survey to assess conservation needs more adequately.
Species Present
Cape clawless otter, spotted-necked otter (?)
Status and Distribution
The Cape clawless otter is fairly common along some rivers and man-made lakes. The spotted-necked otter is generally believed to be absent, but may occur in the Zambezi River above the Victoria Falls.
Legal Status
Protected in national parks. Landowners may hunt otters, but overexploitation is curtailed by the wildlife regulations.
Threats
No major threats. Some streams have become silted owing to overgrazing or agriculture. Generally, however, it is believed that water conservation measures and the construction of numerous lakes and dams throughout the country have enhanced rather than threatened the status of otters.
Conservation Priorities
Implementation of conservation-oriented farming practices, particularly regarding the regulation of livestock numbers.