Section 5: Conservation Priorities For Madagascar Lemurs
This section of the Action Plan identifies priority projects and long-term programs for lemur conservation during the 1990s as they relate to the existing system of protected areas in Madagascar. Immediate action is required to ensure the survival of endangered lemurs throughout Madagascar, but primarily in the eastern forests. The projects recommended here fall within several broad categories of action, according to accepted strategies for the conservation of highly endangered primates (Mittermeier, 1986) and have been presented with serious consideration given to logistics and the realities of fieldwork in Madagascar. We have tried to maximize the efficiency of proposed conservation actions by focusing on large communities of the most threatened lemur species and by proposing a number of projects that involve multiple protected areas in close proximity.
In general, the following types of activities are recommended by this Action Plan:
1. Locating Remaining Populations of Endangered Primates and Determining Basic Geographic Distribution
We still know remarkably little about wild populations of even some of the best known lemur species. Thus, survey work of the most basic kind is required throughout Madagascar, and especially for those lemur species of high conservation priority. In carrying out these surveys, particular attention must be paid to the status of populations within existing protected areas, since these are the places in which the species will be most likely to survive. In addition, investigations of lemur populations should be made in areas identified as sites of biological improtance, for which there is currently no official protection. The confirmed presence of significant populations of endangered lemurs in such areas can be used as a conservation tool to help increase protection.
2. Conducting Ecological, Behavioral and Genetic Studies to Determine the Basic Requirements of the Species
Wherever possible, scientific studies of lemur populations should be developed to identify the threats to these populations and to determine whether they are likely to be viable over the long term. The eventual goal of such studies is to develop management plans to ensure the survival of species and habitat. In addition, a continuing scientific presence has great conservation value as a deterrent against poaching and habitat encroachment.
3. Improving Protection in Existing Parks and Reserves
According to Nicoll and Langrand (1989), most parks and reserves within Madagascar's system of protected areas are inadequately protected. In general, most require management plans, additional staff, increased budgets, housing and operational facilities, equipment, professional training for staff, and public education programs to involve the surrounding communities. Many of the recommendations offered by Nicoll and Langrand (1989) remain to be implemented. Specific projects described in this Action Plan focus on creating facilities, increasing the available manpower and building the capacity of governmental and non-governmental conservation agencies in Madagascar. It is also important to recognize the contribution being made to lemur conservation by privately protected reserves.
4. Establishing New Protected Areas
Establishment of new protected areas is especially important if none currently exist within the range of endangered species, or if existing protected areas are inadequate to ensure species survival. Creation of new parks and reserves is a time-consuming and expensive process, and one that must be based upon sound scientific information provided by basic survey work and long-term field research. Several endangered lemur species and subspecies are not found in any officially protected areas at this time, and the prospects for their survival remain poor until such areas are created.
5. Increasing Public Awareness of the Importance of Wildlife
Lemurs stand out clearly as symbols for conservation in Madagascar and internationally. Without the support of the local people, field conservation programs on behalf of endangered species are not likely to succeed. Education programs and public awareness campaigns should be an integral part of the total conservation effort.
6. Creating Economic Incentives for Local Communities and Opportunities to Cooperate
Public awareness and environmental education programs may help change people's attitudes toward lemurs and other wildlife, primarily in areas where populations are literate and have access to public media. However, interactive conservation and development programs are also necessary to demonstrate that there are economic incentives to local communities directly related to the protection and wise use of tropical forest habitat and wildlife populations. Grass roots efforts of this nature need to be a part of the management plans for all reserves within Madagascar's system of protected area system.
7. Training Nationals
Training of Malagasy students and researchers is essential for the long-term future of lemurs and other wildlife. Conservation-oriented training of promising young students should be a high priority and should range from local training of guards and park wardens to college and masters level programs at Malagasy universities and Ph.D.-level programs abroad.
8. Developing Captive Breeding Programs
Based upon the size and status of remaining wild populations, captive breeding programs may be necessary to ensure the survival of endangered lemur species. This will involve both foreign programs developed by zoological institutions in the United States and Europe, and in-country efforts in Madagascar.
Figure 24. Protected areas and other sites of biological importance in Madagascar.
Recommendations for lemur conservation programs and projects are organized according to the major biogeographic regions identified in the preceding sections (Fig. 1). The species-oriented projects for each region include surveys within existing protected areas and other sites of biological importance (Fig. 24), and searches for new populations in areas which currently receive no protection.
In an effort to estimate the costs of conducting such projects, we have used simple formulas. For surveys and censuses, $10,000–$15,000 has been budgeted for each year of fieldwork projected, understanding that the collection of data from large and inaccesible areas will require larger and better equipped survey teams working for longer periods of time. Consideration is also given to the need for foreign expertise and the resultant international transportation costs. Should research also be recommended to solve existing taxonomic problems, $10,000–$15,000 has been budgeted to cover the cost of fieldwork and requisite laboratory analyses. An additional $10,000/year is estimated for each year of long-term field research on lemur ecology, behavior and conservation status.
It is a bit more difficult to estimate the full costs of increasing protection for the existing parks and reserves, developing community-based public awareness campaigns, creating economic incentives for local communities and establishing new protected areas. Lemur conservation is one component of such efforts, and it would be misleading to assign the costs of creating, developing and managing protected areas or changing public attitudes toward conservation to the needs of a single lemur species or even entire lemur communities. We have focused on an element essential to all these programs: the establishment of permanent field stations within protected areas to base staff, conduct scientific research and provide for visitation. We have estimated the construction and equipment costs at $50,000 and maintenance cost of each fully equipped field station at $10,000/year.
Environment Program 1 (EP1) is the first five-year phase of an international effort to support the implementation of Madagascar's National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP), a fifteen to twenty-year program. Under one of EP1's seven components, biodiversity conservation, large sums of money are being allocated to develop a number of Madagascar's parks and reserves, programs that will ultimately safeguard a number of important lemur populations. EP1 targets 50 protected areas and is being funded by United States Assistance for International Development (USAID), United Nations Development Program (UNDP), Direction de la Cooperation Suisse au Developpement et al'Aide Humanitaire (DDA: Swiss Cooperation), Kreditanstalt fur Wiederaufbau (KFW: German Financial Cooperation), the Royal Government of Norway (NORAD) and the World Bank (IDA). Implementing agencies include Madagascar's Ministry of Water and Forests (MEF), the National Association for the Management of Protected Areas (ANGAP), the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), Missouri Botanical Gardens (MBG), Intercooperation Suisse, Duke University, SAFAFI (a Malagasy NGO) and Conservation International (CI). Under the NEAP, a total of 50 protected areas will be developed and funded (Greve, 1991; A. Greve, pers. comm.).
For the purposes of this Action Plan, we support recommendations of earlier documents for upgrading the level of protection currently available to Madagascar's parks and reserves, and the need to create new reserves in areas important for lemur conservation (Nicoll and Langrand, 1990; Stuart et al., 1990). Where large-scale funding for protected area development and management has been allocated under the auspices of EP1, we strongly recommend that lemur conservation projects as presented in this document be included in the scope and funding priorities of the more comprehensive programs.
The 140,000 ha Mananara-Nord Biosphere Reserve was created in 1989 as part of UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere Program. The project is financed by the United Nation's Development Program and the World Bank. The biosphere reserve includes two national parks: Verezanantsoro (23,000 ha) and Atafana (1,200 ha), a marine park, and a 115,000 ha multiple-use area (Greve, 1991). It is bordered by the Mananara River to the north; the Mananara, Sandrakatsy and Fotsialanara rivers to the west; the Anove River to the south and the Indian Ocean to the east (Albignac, 1988).
The forests of Mananara-Nord reportedly harbor populations of Daubentonia madagascariensis, Allocebus trichotis, Indri indri, Propithecus d. diadema and Varecia variegata variegata, making its development and protection one of the highest priorities for lemur conservation in Madagascar. Threats to the reserve include slash-and-burn clearance for rice cultivation, cutting of timber for construction and hunting of lemurs and other wildlife for food. About 40,000 people live within the reserve's multiple-use area (Albignac, 1988).
The goals of the UNESCO project are to counteract the traditional practice of tavy (slash and burn agriculture). In exchange for agreeing not to extend this practice, local populations will be provided with services such as schools or clinics, or will be assisted in acquiring and implementing new agricultural techniques, especially for rice production. Since this project began, a decline in forest destruction has been observed (Greve, 1991).
Surveys are needed to assess the status of Mananara-Nord's lemur populations, as are long-term ecological studies, especially for populations of the five species listed above. As part of the overall effort to manage this new protected area, a field station is to be constructed, and research and public awareness programs are soon to be initiated.
Ambatovaky Special Reserve
The Ambatovaky Special Reserve represents a considerable tract of protected forest in Madagascar's Eastern Domain; 51,050 ha of its total 60,050 ha falls within this phytogeographical category. Analyses of satellite photographs indicate that large tracts of lowland forest remain within its boundaries (Nicoll and Langrand, 1990). Several species of high conservation priority have been found in Ambatovaky, including Daubentonia madagascariensis, Indri indri, Propithecus d. diadema, Varecia variegata variegata and Avahi laniger (Thompson and Evans, 1991).
Surveys will be needed to document the size of lemur populations in this large area and the status of the remaining forests, and they should commence as soon as funds become available. General recommendations regarding protection of Ambatovaky include increasing the guard staff (Nicoll and Langrand, 1989) and establishing a field station as a base of operations for reserve management and scientific research. The need for a public awareness program remains to be determined. Increased protection for Ambatovaky is not yet provided under EP1.
New Protected Area on the Masoala Peninsula
The Masoala Nature Reserve was created in 1927 on the northeastern part of the Masoala peninsula, but was declassified in 1964 to permit timbering. A 300,000 ha national park has been proposed for this area (Nicoll and Langrand, 1989; Stuart and Adams, 1990). Nine lemur species are reported from the Masoala Peninsula, including Microcebus rufus, Cheirogaleus medius, Hapalemur griseus, Lepilemur sp., Eulemur fulvus albifrons, Phaner furcifer, Avahi l. laniger, Varecia variegata rubra and Daubentonia madagascariensis (Nicoll and Langrand, 1989). Of these, the last four are priority taxa, especially Varecia variegata rubra which does not occur in any officially protected area at present.
Threats to the Masoala's forests and wildlife include the cutting of timber for construction, slash-and-burn cultivation to clear land for rice, vanilla, coffee, cloves and palms, and the hunting and trapping of wildlife (Constable et al. 1985; Simons and Lindsay, 1987; Nicoll and Langrand, 1989). Eulemur fulvus albifrons and Varecia variegata rubra appear to be most susceptible to trapping. There are currently no management or research facilities within the proposed national park. Responsibility for management is with the regional foresters association.
A botanical survey of the Masoala Peninsula has already been undertaken by the Parc Botanique et Zoologique de Tsimbazaza, the University of Madagascar, Kew Gardens and the Missouri Botanical Gardens. Surveys of the lemur fauna are urgently needed, especially of Varecia variegata rubra and Daubentonia madagascariensis. Development of the Masoala Peninsula National Park will be funded by USAID and other sources, and is to be implemented by the Missouri Botanical Garden and SAFAFI under the auspices of EP1 (Greve, 1991). Plans include provision for properly trained and equipped staff, management and research facilities, and public awareness and education programs (Nicoll and Langrand, 1989).
New Protected Area near Maroantsetra
Due to the high species diversity in Madagascar's northeastern rainforests (Pollock, 1985), and the lack of protected areas in the region surrounding the Bay of Antongil, the recommendation has been made to establish one or more large reserves in the forests to the north and west of the town of Maroantsetra (Stuart et al., 1990). Primate surveys in this region report evidence of at least eight lemur species: Cheirogaleus major, Hapalemur griseus, Lepilemur mustelinus, Eulemur fulvus albifrons, Avahi l. laniger, Varecia variegata, Indri indri and Daubentonia madagascariensis (Simons and Lindsay, 1986; Albignac, 1987; Raxworthy and Stephenson, 1988). It is also likely that these forests harbor populations of Propithecus diadema candidus and possibly Allocebus trichotis.
Surveys are needed to establish the distribution and status of the more endangered lemur species in this region as a prerequisite to proposing a new protected area.
Betampona Nature Reserve and Mangerivola Special Reserve
The 2,228 ha Betampona Nature Reserve is located 40 km northwest of the city of Tamatave in Toamasina Province. Like the Zahamena Nature Reserve, it is reported to harbor 11 lemur species, including Daubentonia madagascariensis, Propithecus d. diadema, Indri indri, Varecia variegata variegata, Phaner furcifer and Avahi l. laniger (Jenkins, 1987; Katz, 1990). The reserve is surrounded by numerous villages, and several decades of exploitation have reduced its forest cover to 1,000 ha or less. Tavy cultivation, livestock grazing and lemur hunting are all known to occur along the boundaries. There is no field station at the reserve itself; personnel are based in the village of Fontsimavo, about 90-minute distant by foot (Pollock, 1985; Jenkins, 1987). Under EP1, the Church of Wales, U.K. is funding and implementing the development of the Betampona Nature Reserve (Greve, 1991).
Very little information is available about the 11,900 ha Mangerivola Special Reserve, but due to its proximity to the Betampona and Zahamena Nature Reserves, it may harbor significant populations of several important lemur species. Given their small size and close proximity, the Betampona and Mangerivola reserves should probably be studied and managed jointly. Faunal surveys are already underway at Betampona, supported by Duke University, Wildlife Preservation Trust International and Conservation International. These should be expanded to include Mangerivola. Long-term studies of the five lemur species listed above should begin at Betampona, as should construction of a field station, and the training and outfitting of personnel. The local public awareness program should be expanded.
Manombo Special Reserve
The 5,020 ha Manombo Special Reserve is a small tract of lowland rainforest on Madagascar's southeastern coast, about 30 km south of the city of Farafangana. Six lemur species are reported to occur here, including three of high conservation priority, Daubentonia madagascariensis, Eulemur fulvus albocollaris and Avahi l. laniger. Manombo is presently the only protected area in which this subspecies of brown lemur is thought to occur (Harcourt and Thornback, 1990).
Unfortunately, the reserve has been deforested by about 40% by the local people to provide timber for construction, to clear land to plant manioc, rice and coffee, and to create pasture for zebu cattle (Nicoll and Langrand, 1989). It is also common practice to hunt the diurnal lemurs. Although an adequate staff exists, it is based in the town of Farafangana, too far from the reserve to patrol it properly.
A survey is needed to determine the extent to which aye-aye and brown lemurs still occur in Manombo. A long-term ecological study of the brown lemur should also be initiated. A field station should be built closer to the reserve, from which an anti-poaching campaign can be mounted.
Nosy Mangabe Special Reserve
The 520 ha Nosy Mangabe Special Reserve consists of the entire island of Nosy Mangabe, 5 km from Madagascar's east coast in the Bay of Antongil. Five lemur species occur here, including Varecia v. variegata (introduced in the 1930s; recently studied by H. Simons-Morland) and Daubentonia madagascariensis (introduced in 1966; recently studied by E. Sterling). A permanent field station has been constructed as a base of operations for researchers and the reserve guards, and a modest capacity for ecotourism is being developed. Long-term studies are needed on Nosy Mangabe to determine the viability of small populations in limited habitat, and the effects of ecotourism.
Zahamena Nature Reserve
Approximately 5,000 ha of the 73,160 ha Zahamena Nature Reserve is lowland tropical forest of the Eastern Domain; the remainder falls within the Central Domain. The reserve is located east of Ambatondrazaka in Toamasina Province, bordered to the south by the Onibe River, to the east by the Ihofika River, to the west by the Vohimahery River and to the north by the road from Sahatavy to Imerimandroso (Jenkins, 1987). Zahamena is situated 20 km to the east of Lac Alaotra and about 80 km west of the Indian Ocean. There are about 10 villages and a population of more than 2,000 people within the reserve's central enclave, the largest village being Andapa (Raxworthy, 1986: Nicoll and Langrand, 1990; Daniels, 1991). Access to the reserve is by foot, a two-day walk from the nearest road.
Eleven lemur species are known to inhabit Zahamena, including Daubentonia madagascariensis, Indri indri, Propithecus d. diadema, Varecia variegata variegata, Avahi l. laniger (Jenkins, 1987; Nicoll and Langrand, 1989) and Phaner furcifer (Daniels, 1991). Faunal surveys of the reserve have been undertaken by the International Council for Bird Preservation and London University (Thompson et al., 1987) and more recently by Conservation International. Threats to Zahamena include burning to clear land for agriculture and pasture, cutting of timber for construction and hunting of lemurs and other wildlife for food. The current staff is too small and insufficiently equipped to protect the reserve. There are currently no management facilities within the reserve (Nicoll and Langrand, 1990), but a management plan is being designed by Conservation International (Greve, 1991).
More complete surveys of Zahamena's lemur fauna are needed, as are long-term studies of the five species listed above. One or more field stations are needed to house staff, researchers and visitors, and from which to conduct a public awareness and environmental education program.
Ranomafana National Park
Ranomafana National Park was inaugurated in May 1991 and is composed of three parts covering a total of 41,600 ha (Greve, 1991). It is the only protected area in Madagascar where the critically endangered Hapalemur aureus and Hapalemur simus are known to occur (Meier and Rumpler, 1987). In all, 11 lemur species have been reported from Ranomafana, including populations of Daubentonia madagascariensis, Varecia variegata variegata, Propithecus diadema edwardsi and Avahi l. laniger. Surveys of all lemur populations have now been completed, providing reliable estimates for population sizes within the boundaries of this new protected area (Wright et al., 1987; Wright, pers. comm.).
Funding for the continued development of Ranomafana National Park is provided by USAID and other agencies. Duke University is responsible for implementing development of the park and has already established a research station there (Harcourt and Thornback, 1990; Greve, 1991).
Surveys of other forests in this region are needed to determine whether species such as Hapalemur aureus and Hapalemur simus survive elsewhere (Meier and Rumpler, 1987; Fowler et al., 1989; Wilson et al., 1989).
Marojejy Nature Reserve and Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve
The Marojejy Nature Reserve's 60,150 ha and Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve's 32,100 ha both include forests of the Eastern, Central and High Mountain Domains. Due to their proximity, we recommend that these reserves be treated as a single unit in terms of research and management. Between them, Marojejy and Anjanaharibe-Sud contain 10 lemur species, including four taxa of high conservation priority: Propithecus diadema candidus (reported from both), Daubentonia madagascariensis (from Marojejy), Indri indri and Avahi l. laniger (from Anjanaharibe-Sud). This is the most important area for the survival of Propithecus diadema candidus.
Several years of survey work will be required to determine the distribution and population sizes of these endangered lemurs throughout the two reserves. Better protection of these two reserves is also needed, as they are very large and difficult to patrol. More guards are necessary and they must be better equipped. Field stations should be constructed at both Marojejy and Anjanaharibe-Sud, and a public awareness and environmental education program launched in the city of Andapa, which lies between them. According to Nicoll and Langrand (1989), these activities have been planned by the World Wide Fund for Nature. Funding for the reserves' development is being provided by the German Financial Cooperation (Greve, 1991).
Andohahela Nature Reserve
The 63,100 ha Andohahela Nature Reserve represents the southernmost extent of Central and Eastern Domain forests in Madagascar, and also contains a small tract of Southern Domain forest. It is one of the most interesting of all Madagascar's protected areas in terms of biological diversity (O'Connor et al., 1986, 1987).
Fourteen species of lemur are known to occur in Andohahela, making it the richest protected area in Madagascar in terms of lemur diversity. The highest conservation priorities among the species reported from Andohahela include Daubentonia madagascariensis, Lemur catta, Phaner furcifer and Avahi l. laniger. The conservation status within Andohahela for each of these taxa remains to be determined.
The Andohahela Protected Areas Management Program began in 1990 under the direction of the World Wide Fund for Nature and SAFAFI, with funding provided by US foundations and the Government of Madagascar. As a result, local conservation officers have been hired and trained, new trails have been cut, and reforestation, agricultural extension and environmental education efforts have begun (Greve, 1991).
New Protected Area near Daraina
Based upon the recent discovery of Tattersall's sifaka (Propithecus tattersalli), the recommendation has been put forth to create a 20,000 ha national park in the vicinity of Daraina in northern Madagascar (Meyers and Ratsirarson, 1989; Harcourt and Thornback, 1990). This species currently is not found in any protected area. Recent surveys indicate that Propithecus tattersalli inhabits an area approximately 1,500 km2 in size but that this area is less than 20% forested. Its distribution is patchy and there appears to be no means of genetic exchange between isolated populations, the largest of which is approximately 4,000. Total population of this species, although originally estimated in the hundreds upon its discovery, is probably close to 8,000 (D. Meyers, pers. comm.).
A long-term study and scientific presence is needed in this region as plans for a protected area are developed. Recent surveys have also observed Daubentonia madagascariensis and Phaner furcifer (D. Meyers, pers. comm.) making this one of the very highest lemur conservation priorities in the entire country.
Montagne d'Ambre National Park and Foret d'Ambre Special Reserve
Located in close proximity to one another in northern Madagascar, these two protected areas cover approximately 23,000 ha and share seven lemur species, including three which are considered conservation priorities: Daubentonia madagascariensis, Phaner furcifer electromontis and Eulemur coronatus. B. Freed of Washington University has undertaken a long-term field study of E. f. sanfordi and E. coronatus, but surveys are needed to determine distribution and population sizes of other lemurs within the reserves.
Management of Montagne d'Ambre National Park and the Foret d'Ambre Special Reserve is linked to a larger program which includes the Ankarana and Analamera Special Reserves in northern Madagascar (Nicoll and Langrand, 1989). This multi-protected area project includes ecosystem preservation, rural development based on sustainable use of natural resources, environmental education and ecotourism (Stuart et al., 1990). Funds are being provided by USAID and the World Wide Fund for Nature; the latter also being responsible for project implementation (Greve, 1991).
Mantady National Park and Analamazaotra Special Reserve
The creation of the 10,000 ha Mantady National Park to augment the 810 ha Analamazaotra Special Reserve at Perinet (= Andasibe) has significantly increased the amount of protected forest for at least 10 lemur species, including Daubentonia madagascariensis, Indri indri, Varecia variegata variegata, Propithecus d. diadema and Avahi l. laniger.
The fauna and flora of the Analamazaotra Special Reserve are among the best studied in Madagascar (Nicoll and Langrand, 1989), and this research should be extended to the newly-protected forests of Mantady. A long-term ecological study of Mantady's indri population should be undertaken, and long-term monitoring of the Perinet indris, one of the country's major tourist attractions, should be carried out as well, as there has not been an in depth study of the indri since the early 1970s (Pollock, 1975, 1977) and even that lasted just one year. Funding for the overall development and management of Mantady National Park is being provided by the World Bank and the United Nations Development Program, and is being managed by UNESCO under its Man and Biosphere Program (Greve, 1991).
Marotandrano and Tampoketsa-Analamaitso
Special Reserves
At the present time, no information exists about the lemur fauna of the 42,200 ha Marotandrano Special Reserve or the 17,150 ha Tampoketsa-Anamalaitso Special Reserve of northeastern Madagascar, nor about the status of the protected areas themselves, except that Tampoketsa-Analamaitso is said to have been heavily deforested (Nicoll and Langrand, 1989). However, given their location, it is reasonable to expect that these reserves harbor several lemur taxa of high conservation priority, possibly Daubentonia madagascariensis, Indri indri, Propithecus diadema diadema, and Varecia variegata variegata. It is recommended that surveys of the two reserves be conducted as soon as possible.
Midongy-Sud Classified Forest
The 67,568 ha Midongy-Sud Classified Forest of southeastern Madagascar is considered a critical site for conservation of biological diversity (Stuart et al., 1990). Due to its large size, rugged terrain and relative inaccessibility, Midongy-Sud is presently well-protected. Conservation International is developing plans for management of Madagascar's system of Classified Forests, including Midongy-Sud (Greve, 1991). According to preliminary faunal surveys, Daubentonia madagascariensis and Propithecus diadema edwardsi are probably present in the forests of Midongy-Sud. Surveys of these and searches for other lemur taxa should commence as soon as possible.
Ambohijanahary Special Reserve
Despite their location in far western Madagascar, the forests of the 24,750 ha Ambohijanahary Special Reserve fall within the Central Domain and thus consitute a transition zone between the country's Eastern and Western Regions. Little is known about the lemur fauna of this reserve, except that Propithecus verreauxi deckeni is reported to be fairly common. A survey is needed to determine the status of this endangered subspecies and to search for other taxa of high conservation priority. It is also quite certain that this reserve requires better protection (Stuart et al., 1990).
Manongarivo Special Reserve
The 35,250 ha of the Manongarivo Special Reserve are covered by forests of the Sambirano Domain, harbor a large number of endemic plants and animals, and are home to at least eight lemur species, including Daubentonia madagascariensis, Phaner furcifer, and probably Hapalemur griseus occidentalis. Other than an expedition to Manongarivo in 1987 sponsored by the Madagascar Environmental Research Group, no detailed surveys of lemur populations have been conducted (Nicoll and Langrand, 1989). A well-defined system of trails within the reserve should facilitate study of resident lemur populations.
High Mountain Domain
Andringitra Nature Reserve and Pic d'Ivohibe Special Reserve
The 31,160 ha Andringita Nature Reserve contains forests of the Eastern (1,600 ha), Central (21,860 ha) and High Mountain Domains (7,700 ha). The 3,450 ha Pic d'Ivohibe Special Reserve, which is located very close to Andringitra, lies entirely within the High Mountain Domain. Seven lemur species are reported from the Andringitra Nature Reserve, including the threatened Lemur catta, Varecia variegata variegata and Avahi l. laniger. Only two species are reported from Pic d'Ivohibe, but one, Propithecus diadema edwardsi, is a high conservation priority.
Due to the close proximity of these reserves, lemur surveys can be undertaken as a common project, although surveys of the larger, more inaccessible Andringitra Nature Reserve will require more time.
Plans for development and management of these reserves are part of a larger program administered by the World Wide Fund for Nature, which also includes support for the Marojejy Nature Reserve and Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve. Funding for their development is being provided by the German Financial Cooperation (Greve, 1991).
Tsaratanana Nature Reserve
The 48,622 ha Tsaratanana Nature Reserve contains forests of the Eastern (8,270), Central (36,952) and High Mountain Domains (3,400), and is reported to harbor populations of seven lemur species, including Phaner furcifer parienti. Land in this region is cultivated primarily for the production of coffee, vanilla, rice, beans, manioc and banana. Little information exists concerning the status of Tsaratanana or its wildlife. Faunal and floral inventories are based largely upon an ORSTOM expedition that took place in 1966. Access to the reserve is somewhat limited and there are no facilities for researchers or visitors (Nicoll and Langrand, 1989). Basic surveys are needed to confirm the presence of the fork-marked dwarf lemur (P. f. parienti) and the possibility that other priority taxa inhabit Tsaratanana.
Tsingy de Bemaraha Nature Reserve and Tsimembo Classified Forest
At 152,000 ha, the Tsingy de Bemaraha Nature Reserve is one of the largest protected areas in Madagascar. It is located just east of the Tsimembo Classified Forest, estimated at 125,000 ha, another very significant forest tract. Each area is reported to contain eight lemur species. Propithecus verreauxi deckeni and Phaner furcifer are common to both. In addition, Mirza coquereli, Avahi laniger occidentalis and Daubentonia madagascariensis are reported from Tsingy de Bemaraha. Aside from faunal inventories, the lemur communities of these areas remain largely unstudied.
Threats to both Tsingy de Bemaraha and Tsimembo include fire, logging and hunting. In addition, both are under-staffed and under-equipped, and there are no facilities for management (Nicoll and Langrand, 1989).
Surveys are needed to determine the status of resident lemur populations. Due to the large size and relative inaccessibility of both Tsingy de Bemaraha and Tsimembo, it is likely that surveys will require several years to complete. Local public awareness campaigns would also be very useful. Funding for development and management of the Tsingy de Bemaraha Nature Reserve is being provided by the German Ministry of Economic Cooperation (BMZ: Bundesministerium fur Wirtshaftliche Zusammenarbeit). UNESCO is responsible for implementation of this program (Greve, 1991).
Ankarafantsika Nature Reserve
The 60,250 ha Ankaranfantsika Nature Reserve is located in close proximity to the 20,000 ha Ampijoroa Classified Forest. Preliminary studies of primate populations have been undertaken at Ankarafantsika (Tattersall and Sussman, 1975; Harrington, 1978; Albignac, 1981; Martin, 1982; Andriatsarafara, 1988). Of the seven lemur species present, three are considered conservation priorities, Eulemur mongoz, Propithecus verreauxi coquereli and Avahi laniger occidentalis. Threats to the two protected areas from the encroaching human population include traditional burning to create pasture for livestock, the introduction of feral cattle, charcoal production and poaching. The current staff at Ankarafantsika is too small and under-equipped to patrol the reserve effectively. A forestry field station does exist, however, within the Ampijoroa Classified Forest (Nicoll and Langrand, 1989).
Surveys are needed to determine the status of lemur populations throughout Ankarafantsika and Ampijoroa. Reserve guards need better transportation, a fire control program should be initiated, a public awareness campaign begun in surrounding communities and a forestry management program developed that provides for reforestation of areas where timber is used for construction and fuel (Nicoll and Langrand, 1989). Funding for the development of the Ankarafantsika Nature Reserve is being provided by the World Bank and the United Nations Development Program. The implementing agency is UNESCO under its Man and Biosphere Program (Stuart et al., 1990; Greve, 1991).
Analamera and Ankarana Special Reserves
The 34,700 ha Analamera Special Reserve, although situated along Madagascar's northeast coast, falls within the Western Domain and represents a transition zone between Madagascar's two major phytogeographic regions. Less than 50 km southwest lies the 18,200 ha Ankarana Special Reserve which is floristically very similar.
Of the 11 lemur species reported from Ankarana and seven from Analamera, four shared taxa are conservation priorities: Daubentonia madagascariensis, Propithecus diadema perrieri, Phaner furcifer electromontis and Eulemur coronatus. One other, Avahi laniger occidentalis, is reported from Ankarana. Anamalera is an especially important reserve for Propithecus diadema perrieri, one of the rarest subspecies of diademed sifaka. Recent surveys estimate a population as high as 2,000 (Meyers and Ratsirarson, 1989). A second population of Propithecus diadema perrieri is reported from the northeastern portion of the Ankarana Special Reserve, but densities are apparently lower than in Analamera (Hawkins et al., in press).
The principal threat to Analamera is burning by local people to clear land for livestock pasture; cattle herds roam through parts of the reserve. It is not clear how seriously lemur populations are affected by hunting. Nicoll and Langrand (1989) maintain that they are not regularly hunted while Fowler et al. (1989) report otherwise. The reserve is currently understaffed, with only a single guard. There is no field station and available transportation is inadequate. Human encroachment also threatens the Ankarana Special Reserve. Several illegal settlements exist within the reserve, and fire to clear pasture for livestock, charcoal production and illegal logging are commonplace along its perimeter (Nicoll and Langrand, 1989). Hunting is described as limited; Fowler et al. (1989) suggests that lemur hunting is taboo in the Ankarana region. Problems of understaffing and inadequate equipment and facilities are similar to those of Analamera.
Based upon the surveys undertaken to date, long-term ecological studies are needed for Propithecus diadema perrieri in both reserves, as are further surveys to determine the status of Daubentonia madagascariensis. In addition, it has been suggested that Hapalemur simus might be rediscovered at Ankarana (Harcourt and Thornback, 1990), so searches for it are recommended. The recommendation has also been made to create a forest corridor between Ankarana and Analamera. Development and management of the Analamera and Ankarana Special Reserves is being financed by USAID and the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), as part of a WWF-administered program that includes the Montagne D'Ambre National Park and the Foret D'Ambre Special Reserve.
Namoroka Nature Reserve and the Lac Kinkony Classified Forest
On the northwest coast of Madagascar lie two protected areas of importance to lemur conservation, the 21,742 ha Namoroka Nature Reserve and the classified forest of Lac Kinkony (10,000–15,000 ha). Namoroka is reported to harbor four species of lemurs and the forests of Kinkony two species. Propithecus verreauxi deckeni is common to both.
The chief threat to Namoroka is the annual burning to create pasture for livestock and to clear land for the planting of rice, manioc, banana and sugar cane. Fortunately, this region is sparsely populated and the resulting damage to the reserve is probably not severe. Propithecus verreauxi deckeni is reported to be common in the region due to its protection from hunting by a local taboo (Nicoll and Langrand, 1989).
Surveys are needed to determine the status of Propithecus verreauxi and the overall condition of these two protected areas. A study should also be conducted on the genetics of the sifakas inhabiting this region to clarify the taxonomy of P. v. deckeni and P. v. coronatus.
Zombitse and Vohibasia Classified Forests
The 21,500 ha Zombitse and Vohibasia Classified Forests are home to six species of lemurs including Phaner furcifer pallescens. They are reported to be severely threatened by fires from annual burning to create pasture, illegal logging for charcoal production and construction, cultivation of corn and hunting of lemurs and other wildlife. No formal studies have been conducted of the flora and fauna. There are no facilities within the boundaries of these areas, and the guards have inadequate equipment and transportation (Nicoll and Langrand, 1989).
Surveys of lemur populations are necessary. Field stations should be constructed and guard staffs properly equipped to patrol the two forests. A local public awareness program is also needed. The World Wide Fund for Nature is starting the implementation of a conservation/development project that plans to promote Zombitse and Vohibasia forests as a national park. This project is funded by Norwegian Aid (NORAD) (Greve, 1991).
Bemarivo, Maningozo and Kasijy Special Reserves
The 11,570 ha Bemarivo Special Reserve and 7,900 ha Maningozo Special Reserve are located about 50 km from one another on the west coast of Madagascar. The 18,800 ha Kasijy Special Reserve is several hundred kilometers inland due east. Virtually nothing is known about the status of these reserves nor of their lemur communities.
Based upon their presumed distributions, Propithecus verreauxi deckeni (and/or P. v. coronatus) and Phaner furcifer pallescens may occur in one or more of these special reserves. Searches are needed to determine the status of these two taxa and the general condition of these protected areas. Survey work should be relatively easy in Bemarivo and Maningozo due to easy access from nearby villages and secondary roads. Access to Kasijy, however, is only by river from distant villages, and surveys will be much more difficult. Genetic research on the sifakas is also necessary to clarify the taxonomy of P. v. deckeni and P. v. coronatus.
Andranomena Special Reserve, Analabe Private Reserve and the Kirindy Classified Forest
The 6,420 ha Andranomena Special Reserve, the 2,000–12,000 ha Analabe Private Reserve and the 100,000 ha Kirindy Classified Forest are located adjacent to one another in a region of western Madagascar believed to be an important center of species endemism. Based upon available faunal surveys, they share seven lemur species, including two considered to be conservation priorities: Mirza coquereli and Phaner furcifer pallescens.
Threats to Andranomena include illegal logging and hunting. The single guard is ill-equipped to protect Andranomena, especially as he is based far from the reserve. The Analabe Private Reserve, owned by Mr. Jean de Heaulme, is severely threatened by annual burning and poaching of wildlife, including lemurs. There is apparently no guard staff. In principle, the forestry concession at Kirindy is managed to provide renewable forest resources for the region. However, the concession suffers from illegal logging, cultivation and hunting within its boundaries (Nicoll and Langrand, 1989). Surveys are needed in all areas to determine the effects of explotitation on lemur populations. There is a great potential for ecotourism at Analabe.
Plans for the development and management of these areas are being prepared under the auspices of the Swiss Cooperation (DDA: Direction de la Cooperation Suisse au Developpement et a l'Aide Humanitaire).
Isalo National Park
The Isalo National Park is one of Madagascar's largest protected areas. However, the Central Domain forest of Madagascar's Eastern Region covers only 10% of the reserve's 81,540 ha (Nicoll and Langrand, 1989) and Lemur catta is the only priority lemur species found within its boundaries. Uncontrolled burning, cattle grazing and logging by local inhabitants represent the greatest threats to Isalo's remaining forests. While hunting of Lemur fulvus is reported, it is not clear whether this practice extends to Lemur catta as well. There is no permanent field station and very little scientific research has taken place here.
Nicoll and Langrand (1989) recommend the creation of two forestry posts or field stations within Isalo, a clearly marked perimeter and a public awareness campaign in the surrounding vicinity. A census of ring-tailed lemur population is also needed.
Southern Domain
Tsimanampetsotsa Nature Reserve
The 43,200 ha Tsimanampetsotsa Nature Reserve represents the largest protected area of Southern Domain dry forest in Madagascar's Western Region, and apparently an important tract for the survival of Lemur catta. The principal threats to Tsimanampetsotsa are the conversion of forests to pasture and the collection of wood by local people for home construction. No scientific studies have been conducted here, there are no permanent research facilities available and the forest guard must reside a considerable distance from the reserve.
A field station should be constructed within the boundaries of Tsimanampetsotsa, and training and adequate transportation provided for the guard staff. Surveys and censuses are also necessary to determine the size and status of Lemur catta populations in the reserve.
Bora Special Reserve
The 8,380 ha Bora Special Reserve is a relatively isolated protected area in northwestern Madagascar. Two lemur species are reported from its dry forests, Eulemur f. fulvus and Propithecus verreauxi coquereli, but the sifaka's existence there is not confirmed.
The reserve is divided into two parcels, both of which are exploited by the local people and commercial concerns. Fires are set to clear land for agriculture and pasture, timber is taken for construction and fuelwood, and lemurs (at least E. fulvus) are hunted for food (Nicoll and Langrand, 1989). No studies have been conducted in this area and there are currently no facilities to accommodate researchers or other visitors.
Surveys are needed to confirm the presence of Propithecus verreauxi coquereli and to assess the status of the entire reserve. Better protection could be achieved by establishing a field station on site from which regular patrols can be conducted.
Beza-Mahafaly Special Reserve
Despite its small size (580 ha) and the fact that of its five resident lemur species, only one, Lemur catta, is included in our list of priorities, the Beza-Mahafaly Special Reserve remains an important site for lemur conservation in Madagascar. A well-established field research program continues to provide information on the behavior and ecology of lemur communities which is essential to designing and managing protected areas and tourism in Madagascar's western and southern forests (Rakotomanga et al., 1987; Richard et al., 1987).
Support for Beza-Mahafaly has been provided over the past 15 years by the World Wildlife Fund-U.S. and USAID (Nicoll and Langrand, 1989). Long-term field research of lemur communities should continue at this site.
Berenty Private Reserve
The Berenty Private Reserve is owned by the de Heaulme family, and its situation with regard to lemur conservation is similar to that at Beza-Mahafaly. Six lemur species are present here (Lemur catta is a priority and their populations have been the subject of scientific research for more than three decades. In addition, Berenty is the reserve most visited by Malagasy and foreign tourists interested in lemurs and other wildlife. Thus it remains an important site for research on the management of small populations of lemurs and the benefits and drawbacks of ecotourism.
Wildlife Preservation Trust International (WPTI) is supporting a research project to assess the status of Berenty's forests and lemur populations and to develop management techniques to prevent degradation of this small protected area. Support for this research should continue.
A series of public awareness campaigns are recommended nationwide, focusing primarily on the lemur taxa of the higher conservation priority categories: aye-aye, hairy-eared dwarf lemur, Coquerel's dwarf lemur, fork-marked dwarf lemur, black-and-white and red ruffed lemurs, ring-tailed lemur, Sclater's lemur, golden bamboo lemur, greater bamboo lemur, Lac Alaotra gentle lemur, indri, diademed sifaka, silky sifaka, Milne-Edwards' sifaka, Perrier's sifaka, Tattersall's sifaka, crowned sifaka, Coquerel's sifaka and Decken's sifaka. These taxa serve as “flagship” species and subspecies for wildlife conservation efforts throughout Madagascar, and can help focus public attention on the need to incorporate more sound environmental practices in their daily lives.
Materials to be included in such campaigns include educational poster, t-shirts, stickers and pamphlets (see examples on this page). Designs should differ from one region to another, customized to reflect associations between species and the need to protect populations within existing protected areas, as well as to create new parks and reserves. Production and distribution of lemur-oriented educational materials should be conducted in conjunction with existing community outreach programs, or used to stimulate such programs in new areas.
The total production costs of public awareness materials over the time frame of this Action Plan is estimated at $200,000.
(Left) A Malagasy biology student holds a rare radiated tortoise and sports a t-shirt designed to increase awareness of the Beza-Mahafaly Special Reserve. The t-shirt depicts Verreaux's sifaka.
Russell A. Mittermeier
“Lemurs of Madagascar” poster - designed by Stephen Nash and produced by Wildlife Preservation Trust International for distribution throughout Madagascar.
(Above) A poster focusing on the need to protect Hapalemur griseus alaotrensis and other wildlife of La Alaotra's wetland habitats. Artwork by William Oliver. Produced by the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust.
Indriids of Madagascar. Artwork by Stephen Nash. Produced by the World Wildlife Fund Primate Program in 1989.
The taxonomy of certain lemur taxa requires further investigation. Field research that will contribute to such studies has been included in the the previous section under protected area surveys. However, supplemental funding will be required for additional specialized field procedures (e.g. capture of animals, blood collection, storage and transport, etc.) and laboratory analyses.
It is recommended that the following taxonomic questions be investigated using the most up-to-date laboratory techniques.
Are Propithecus diadema holomelas and P. d. edwardsi distinct subspecies?
Are Propithecus verreauxi coronatus and P. v. deckeni distinct subspecies?
Does Varecia variegata variegata consist of two, three or more distinct subspecies?
Are Eulemur fulvus albocollaris and E. f. collaris distinct from other subspecies of E. fulvus at the species level?
Are subspecific designations appropriate within Phaner furcifer?
Do undescribed subspecies of Eulemur rubriventer exist? (*)
Do undescribed subspecies of Microcebus rufus exist? (*)
Are Eulemur fulvus mayottensis and E. f. fulvus synonymous?
Based upon a cost of approximately $10,000–$15,000 per project, we recommend that a total of $100,000 be allocated over the next three years for genetic research projects to answer these questions about lemur taxonomy.
(*) Even though these species are not considered conservation priorities under the rating system employed for this document, further research could potentially identify subspecies of greater conservation concern.
In-country training of Malagasy primatologists is essential to lemur conservation. At present, Madagascar has very few trained primatologists of its own. There is a need to include a primatology course in the currriculum of the Wildlife Management Training Program currently being developed by Conservation International in collaboration with the University of Madagascar. Given the importance of Madagascar's primate fauna to the country as a whole, this program should be considered a high educational priority.
The approximate cost of a primate course for this program would be $100,000 over the next seven years.
In 1985 and 1987, two very significant meetings were held on St. Catherine's Island, Georgia to address the subject of lemur conservation, and the establishment of captive breeding programs was a major topic for discussion at both. Subsequently, in May 1991, representatives of the IUCN/SSC Captive Breeding Specialist Group and the Primate Specialist Group met to develop a Global Captive Action Plan for Primates. Based on the recommendations resulting from these three meetings, captive breeding programs have been proposed for the following taxa (threat status in this list is based on the CBSG/PSG plan and differs slightly from that proposed in this document):
Critical
Daubentonia madagascariensisEndangered
Propithecus diadema candidus
Propithecus diadema perrieri
Eulemur coronatus
Eulemur mongoz
Varecia variegata rubra
Varecia variegata variegata
Vulnerable
Propithecus diadema diadema
Propithecus diadema edwardsi
Propithecus verreauxi coquereli
Propithecus verreauxi deckeni
Eulemur fulvus albocollaris
Eulemur fulvus collaris *
Eulemur fulvus sanfordi *
Eulemur macaco macaco *
Eulemur rubriventer *
Taxa marked with an asterisk (*) are not considered priorities in this Action Plan.
As a result of the landmark meetings held on St. Catherine's Island, a consortium known as the Madagascar Fauna Group (MFG) was formed by zoological parks and captive breeding centers in the United States and Europe. MFG member institutions are committed to preserving endangered lemurs and other Madagascar wildlife through support of in-situ and ex-situ captive breeding efforts, and to providing technical advice and training to Malagasy institutions and biologists. Thus far, the MFG has placed a technical advisor at Madagascar's national zoo, Parc Tsimbazaza, and helped to establish Zoo Ivoloina in cooperation with the Duke University Primate Center and Wildlife Preservation Trust International.
In addition to developing captive breeding programs at the Duke Primate Center, Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, the Mulhouse and Vincennes Zoo in France and other selected facilities outside Madagascar, there is an urgent need to develop greater captive breeding capacity within Madagascar itself. However, we do not include cost estimates for captive breeding efforts in this Action Plan since they will be covered in other documents.